Robots
One page per robotic system: manipulators, rovers, landers with deployable sampling hardware, free-flyers, and rotorcraft. Each page records what the machine masses, how it moves, what powers it, how it is commanded, and what it achieved or failed to achieve in operation, with the measurement conditions attached to every number. Flown hardware, canceled flight builds and development prototypes are all covered, and each page states which of those the machine is.
The grouping is by operating environment rather than by mechanism or by agency, because the environment fixes the constraints the design answers to: gravity, thermal range, communication delay, surface mechanics and radiation. Destination values are settled once on the environments pages and cited from here. Where a system’s control approach or avionics is the subject rather than the vehicle, it is on the software and avionics pages.
The six groups
Section titled “The six groups”- Microgravity and orbital. The base a manipulator works from is not fixed: the ETS-VII arm masses about 140 kg on a 2550 kg spacecraft, so arm motion moves the base and the attitude controller’s response feeds back into the arm [1]. The second constraint is delay, 6 to 7 s round trip through the relay satellite on that mission [2]. The group covers manipulators on stations and on free-flying spacecraft, satellite servicers, debris removal demonstrators and intravehicular free-flyers: the Shuttle and station arm line from Canadarm through Canadarm2, Dextre, JEMRMS, the European Robotic Arm and CSSRMS; the servicing demonstrations ETS-VII, Orbital Express, RRM, OSAM-1 and the MEV vehicles; the capture demonstrators ELSA-d, ADRAS-J and ClearSpace-1; the humanoids Rollin’ Justin, FEDOR and Robonaut 2; and the free-flyers SPHERES, Astrobee, Int-Ball and CIMON.
- Lunar surface. The largest group, spanning the Soviet and Apollo record (the Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2 rovers, the Luna sample return drills, the Surveyor scoop and the Apollo LRV), the Chinese and Indian surface missions (Yutu, Yutu-2, the Chang’e-5 and Chang’e-6 samplers, Pragyan), the current commercial-lander microrovers (MAPP, Iris, CubeRover, YAOKI, SORA-Q, LEV-1, Rashid, TENACIOUS, AstroAnt, Colmena, Micro-Nova, FLIP and FLEX), and the excavation, drilling and mobility development line (RASSOR, Scarab, ATHLETE, MoonRanger, CADRE, Asagumo, TRIDENT, LISTER, PlanetVac, SAMPLR, the Infrastructure Pilot Excavator, the Canadian Lunar Rover, the Lunar Vertex rover and VIPER). Survival across the lunar night, rather than driving, is what has historically bounded a mission: Lunokhod 1 was designed for three lunar days and operated eleven [3].
- Martian surface. Sojourner masses 10.6 kg, was planned for seven sols and returned data for 83 [4]. Ingenuity was designed for five test flights and completed 72 [5], spread from April 2021 to January 2024 [6]. The group holds the rover line Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity, Curiosity, Perseverance, Zhurong and Rosalind Franklin; the lander arms and subsurface hardware of Viking, the Beagle 2 PAW, Phoenix and InSight, including the HP3 mole; and the rotorcraft Ingenuity with the canceled Sample Fetch Rover and recovery helicopters.
- Small bodies. Landers, hoppers and sampling mechanisms: Philae, MINERVA, the Hayabusa2 landers, the MMX rover IDEFIX and the touch-and-go sampler TAGSAM. Holding the lander down at contact is the recurring problem. Philae’s anchoring harpoons did not fire and its hold-down thruster gas tank did not open, so the lander bounced away from Agilkia on an almost two-hour hopping tour, and at the resting site the solar cells could not generate enough power to continue once the batteries were exhausted [7].
- Outer planets. Three entries: the Galileo Probe, Huygens, which reached the surface of Titan and was still moving in the seconds after first contact [8], and Dragonfly, a rotorcraft for the same body.
- Extreme environments. The Venera and VeGa landers are the only machines that have worked on the surface of Venus. Nine of the fourteen Soviet landers reached the surface and survived between 23 and 127 minutes before their electronics failed [9], which is the whole flight record of Venus surface operation.
References
- Yoshida, K. (2003). Engineering Test Satellite VII Flight Experiments for Space Robot Dynamics and Control: Theories on Laboratory Test Beds Ten Years Ago, Now in Orbit
. The International Journal of Robotics Research, 5. Source
BibTeX
@article{yoshida2003engineering, title = {Engineering Test Satellite VII Flight Experiments for Space Robot Dynamics and Control: Theories on Laboratory Test Beds Ten Years Ago, Now in Orbit}, author = {Yoshida, Kazuya}, journal = {The International Journal of Robotics Research}, volume = {22}, number = {5}, pages = {321--335}, year = {2003}, doi = {10.1177/0278364903022005003}, abstract = {The Engineering Test Satellite VII (ETS-VII), an unmanned spacecraft equipped with a 2-m long, six-degree-of-freedom manipulator arm, was developed and launched by the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA). ETS-VII has successfully carried out a variety of on-board experiments with its manipulator arm, and these key technologies are essential for an orbital free-flying robot. These results will provide a solid basis for future satellite servicing missions. This paper highlights manipulator control utilizing the concepts of the generalized Jacobian matrix and the reaction null-space. These concepts have been proposed and discussed for the past ten years using laboratory test beds, and their practical application has now been demonstrated in orbit.} } - Imaida, T., Yokokohji, Y., Doi, T., Oda, M. and Yoshikawa, T. (2003). Ground-Space Teleoperation of a Robot Arm Mounted on Engineering Test Satellite No. VII by Direct Bilateral Coupling under a Long Time Delay Condition
. Journal of the Robotics Society of Japan, 3. Source
BibTeX
@article{imaida2003groundb, title = {Ground-Space Teleoperation of a Robot Arm Mounted on Engineering Test Satellite No. VII by Direct Bilateral Coupling under a Long Time Delay Condition}, author = {Imaida, Takashi and Yokokohji, Yasuyoshi and Doi, Toshitsugu and Oda, Mitsushige and Yoshikawa, Tsuneo}, journal = {Journal of the Robotics Society of Japan}, volume = {21}, number = {3}, pages = {309--320}, year = {2003}, doi = {10.7210/jrsj.21.309}, abstract = {A bilateral teleoperation experiment with Engineering Test Satellite No.VII (ETS-VII) was conducted on November 22, 1999. Round-trip time for communication between the NASDA ground station and ETS-VII was approximately six to seven seconds. We constructed a bilateral teleoperator that is stable even under such a long time delay. Several experiments, such as slope tracing task and peg-in-hole task, were carried out. Task performance was compared between bilateral mode and unilateral mode with force telemetry data visually displayed on a screen. All tasks were possible by bilateral control without any visual information. Experimental results showed that kinesthetic force feedback to the operator is helpful even under such long time delay and improves the performance of the task.} } - Siddiqi, A. A. (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958-2016
. NASA, NASA SP-2018-4041. Source
BibTeX
@book{siddiqi2018beyond, title = {Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958-2016}, author = {Siddiqi, Asif A.}, number = {NASA SP-2018-4041}, publisher = {NASA}, year = {2018}, url = {https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/beyond-earth-tagged.pdf} } - Keith, T. G. and Siebert, M. W. (1998). Mars Pathfinder Wheel Abrasion Experiment Ground Test, and Mars Pathfinder Final Technical Report
. NASA Lewis Research Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Source
BibTeX
@techreport{keith1998mars, title = {Mars Pathfinder Wheel Abrasion Experiment Ground Test, and Mars Pathfinder Final Technical Report}, author = {Keith, Theo G. and Siebert, Mark W.}, institution = {NASA Lewis Research Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory}, year = {1998}, url = {https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19990013984}, abstract = {The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) sent a mission to the martian surface, called Mars Pathfinder. The mission payload consisted of a lander and a rover. The primary purpose of the mission was demonstrating a novel entry, descent, and landing method that included a heat shield, a parachute, rockets, and a cocoon of giant air bags. Once on the surface, the spacecraft returned temperature measurements near the Martian surface, atmosphere pressure, wind speed measurements, and images from the lander and rover. The rover obtained 16 elemental measurements of rocks and soils, performed soil-mechanics, atmospheric sedimentation measurements, and soil abrasiveness measurements.} } - Aagren, T. S., Ruan, A. W., Malpica, C., Withrow-Maser, S. and Meyn, L. (2025). In-flight System Identification of the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter
. AIAA SCITECH Forum, 20240014856. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{aagren2025flight, title = {In-flight System Identification of the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter}, author = {Aagren, Tove S. and Ruan, Allen W. and Malpica, Carlos and Withrow-Maser, Shannah and Meyn, Larry}, booktitle = {AIAA SCITECH Forum}, number = {20240014856}, institution = {NASA}, year = {2025}, doi = {10.2514/6.2025-0007}, abstract = {The 68th and 69th flights of NASA’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter marked the first dedicated system identification flights of an aerial vehicle on another planet. Chirp signals were injected into the swashplate cyclic controls for both legs of the two out-and-back flights. Frequency responses were computed from the flight data, using both the Direct Method (DM) and the Joint-Input-Output (JIO) approach, for the identification of stability and control derivatives in forward flight conditions. The resulting identified state-space models were compared against existing flight dynamics simulation models, showing excellent correlation in the higher frequency range. External disturbances were seen to introduce a bias in the identified lower frequency responses, which was partially mitigated using the JIO method. These findings will inform future modeling and flight testing efforts of Mars rotorcraft.} } - Roumage, G., Azaiez, S., Faure, C. and Louise, S. (2025). The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Specified and Analyzed with the Real-time Mode-aware Dataflow Model
. arXiv preprint. Source
BibTeX
@article{roumage2025ingenuity, title = {The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Specified and Analyzed with the Real-time Mode-aware Dataflow Model}, author = {Roumage, Guillaume and Azaiez, Selma and Faure, Cyril and Louise, Stéphane}, journal = {arXiv preprint}, year = {2025}, doi = {10.32388/zn8rvc}, abstract = {Ingenuity is an autonomous Cyber-Pysical System (CPS) that has successfully completed more than 70 flights over Mars between 2021 and 2024. Ensuring the safety of its mission is paramount, as any failure could result in catastrophic economic damage and significant financial losses. Dataflow Models of Computation and Communication (DF MoCCs) serve as a formal framework for specifying and analyzing the timing behavior of such CPSs. In particular, the Real-time Mode-aware Dataflow (RMDF) model is highly suitable to specify and analyze real-time and mode-dependent CPSs like Ingenuity. This paper showcases the application of RMDF for the specification and analysis of Ingenuity. We propose a dataflow specification of Ingenuity, analyze its timing behavior, and provide a feasibility test. Finally, we proposed a plausible explanation of the timing anomaly that occurred during the sixth flight of Ingenuity.} } - Boehnhardt, H., Bibring, J.-P., Apathy, I., Auster, H.-U., Ercoli Finzi, A., Goesmann, F., Klingelhöfer, G., Knapmeyer, M., Kofman, W., Krüger, H., Mottola, S., Schmidt, W., Seidensticker, K. J., Spohn, T. and Wright, I. P. (2017). The Philae lander mission and science overview
. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. Source
BibTeX
@article{boehnhardt2017philae, title = {The Philae lander mission and science overview}, author = {Boehnhardt, H. and Bibring, Jean-Pierre and Apathy, I. and Auster, Hans-Ulrich and Ercoli Finzi, A. and Goesmann, Fred and Klingelhöfer, G. and Knapmeyer, Martin and Kofman, Wlodek and Krüger, H. and Mottola, Stefano and Schmidt, Walter and Seidensticker, Klaus J. and Spohn, Tilman and Wright, Ian P.}, journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A}, volume = {375}, pages = {20160248}, year = {2017}, doi = {10.1098/rsta.2016.0248}, abstract = {The Philae lander accomplished the first soft landing and the first scientific experiments of a human-made spacecraft on the surface of a comet. Planned, expected and unexpected activities and events happened during the descent, the touch-downs, the hopping across and the stay and operations on the surface. The key results were obtained during 12–14 November 2014, at 3 AU from the Sun, during the 63 h long period of the descent and of the first science sequence on the surface. Thereafter, Philae went into hibernation, waking up again in late April 2015 with subsequent communication periods with Earth (via the orbiter), too short to enable new scientific activities. The science return of the mission comes from eight of the 10 instruments on-board and focuses on morphological, thermal, mechanical and electrical properties of the surface as well as on the surface composition. It allows a first characterization of the local environment of the touch-down and landing sites. Unique conclusions on the organics in the cometary material, the nucleus interior, the comet formation and evolution became available through measurements of the Philae lander in the context of the Rosetta mission. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Cometary science after Rosetta’.} } - Schröder, S. E., Karkoschka, E. and Lorenz, R. D. (2012). Bouncing on Titan: Motion of the Huygens Probe in the Seconds After Landing
. Planetary and Space Science, 1. Source
BibTeX
@article{schroder2012bouncing, title = {Bouncing on Titan: Motion of the Huygens Probe in the Seconds After Landing}, author = {Schröder, Stefan E. and Karkoschka, Erich and Lorenz, Ralph D.}, journal = {Planetary and Space Science}, volume = {73}, number = {1}, pages = {327--340}, year = {2012}, doi = {10.1016/j.pss.2012.08.007} } - Sauder, J., Hilgemann, E., Johnson, M., Parness, A., Bienstock, B., Hall, J., Kawata, J. and Stack, K. (2017). Automaton Rover for Extreme Environments
. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 20170002798. Source
BibTeX
@techreport{sauder2017automaton, title = {Automaton Rover for Extreme Environments}, author = {Sauder, Jonathan and Hilgemann, Evan and Johnson, Michael and Parness, Aaron and Bienstock, Bernie and Hall, Jeffery and Kawata, Jessie and Stack, Kathryn}, number = {20170002798}, institution = {NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory}, year = {2017}, url = {https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20170002798}, abstract = {Almost 2,300 years ago the ancient Greeks built the Antikythera automaton. This purely mechanical computer accurately predicted past and future astronomical events long before electronics existed1. Automata have been credibly used for hundreds of years as computers, art pieces, and clocks. However, in the past several decades automata have become less popular as the capabilities of electronics increased, leaving them an unexplored solution for robotic spacecraft. The Automaton Rover for Extreme Environments (AREE) proposes an exciting paradigm shift from electronics to a fully mechanical system, enabling longitudinal exploration of the most extreme environments within the solar system. } }