Imagers and Optics

Image sensors and optical assemblies selected by flown and qualified planetary robotics programs.

The recurring constraint for detectors on Mars is time rather than radiation: an e2v CCD accumulates dark noise and hot and cold pixels over the mission, and the answer adopted on Mars 2020 is operational rather than a different part [2]. See Notable results below.

Detectors and optics selected and flown

Part	Manufacturer	Used by	Source
CCD 42-10	e2v	curiosity (ChemCam), perseverance (SuperCam, SHERLOC)	[1][2][3]
CCD-224	e2v	curiosity (CheMin)	[6]
KAI-2020CM, KAI-2020M	ON Semiconductor	curiosity (MAHLI), perseverance (3 cameras)	[4][5][2]
CMV4000	AMS CMOSIS	perseverance (SuperCam Remote Micro-Imager)	[7]
IMX264	Sony	ipex (early stereo build)	[8]
IMX547	Sony	ipex (current stereo build)	[8]

Ratings and qualification results

CCD 42-10, e2v: a back-illuminated spectrometer CCD [1]. Ratings: 2048 x 515 active pixels on ChemCam and 512 x 2048 on SHERLOC, 13.5 micron square pixels, image area about 27.6 x 6.9 mm; operated in low-noise advanced inverted mode on ChemCam, with an ultraviolet enhanced coating on SHERLOC [1][2][3]. Qualification: The ChemCam grade-zero units were commercially specified apart from an anti-etalon coating on the VNIR device, and were factory-screened with 100 thermal cycles between -55 and +70 C plus a 72 hour burn-in at 125 C before delivery [1]. For SHERLOC the detector leads were replaced with short flexible wires and relief loops so they flex with temperature rather than fracture [2]. The three programs report the active area transposed relative to each other and do not reconcile the convention [1][2][3].
CCD-224, e2v. Deep-depleted frame transfer CCD used as a photon-counting X-ray detector. Ratings: 600 x 1182 pixels, of which a 600 x 582 area collects and a 600 x 600 shielded area receives the transfer; 40 x 40 micron pixels; 50 micron deep-depleted silicon; front surface passivation thinned over much of the active area [6]. Qualification: Frame transfer removes the need for an X-ray shutter or beam blanking, so collection runs continuously through 5 to 30 s exposures. The large pixel makes a greater fraction of X-ray photons deposit their charge in a single pixel rather than splitting it [6]. The ground CheMin IV units use an e2v 5530 at 1200 x 1152 instead and reach comparable 2-theta resolution [6].
KAI-2020CM, KAI-2020M, ON Semiconductor, formerly Truesense Imaging and before that Kodak. Interline transfer CCD, flown on MAHLI and on Mastcam-Z, WATSON and the SHERLOC Autofocus Context Imager. Ratings: MAHLI reports 1640 x 1214 pixels of 7.4 x 7.4 microns including buffer and dark rows; SHERLOC quotes the same part as 1600 x 1200 [4]. No cover glass, per-pixel microlenses. Quantum efficiency is given as about 40 percent on average by MAHLI and as a peak of about 40 percent by Mastcam-Z, which are not the same claim [4]. CM is Bayer color, M is grayscale; ACI uses the grayscale part because it observes only 500 to 600 nm [4][5][2]. Qualification: Flown on two rovers across five instruments from August 2012 and February 2021. Camera heads are qualified to a nominal Mars operating range of -40 to +40 C with the board sandwiched between housings acting as radiation shielding [5].
CMV4000, AMS CMOSIS. Off-the-shelf low-noise CMOS image sensor. Ratings: 1024 x 1024 per Bayer color plane, four planes; per-pixel microlenses applied during CMOS encapsulation; 10 to 13 bits, extended to 13 by combining 7 frames in high dynamic range mode and always coded in 16 [7]. Qualification: Packaged by 3D Plus into a cube with a 3 Mgate FPGA and a dedicated anti-latch-up circuit, a packaging approach already flown on Rosetta, Curiosity and ExoMars. CNES qualified the Bayer filter positioning on the detector for this application and the relative response between the four filters was checked at component level [7]. Delivered 18.8 mrad field of view with distortion under 2.25 percent and about 10 microradian pixel instantaneous field of view over -40 to +30 C [7].
IMX264, Sony, as flown in the FLIR BFS-GE-88S6M-BD2 camera. Global shutter CMOS imager. Ratings: 8.9 MP at 13 fps, 3.45 micron pixel, monochrome, used with a Kowa LM6JC 6 mm C-mount lens [8]. Qualification: Survived random vibration to GEVS acceptance and qualification levels in all axes, then 2x and 3x GEVS qualification levels, then Falcon 9 half-sine shock, with sensors powered before and after each run to check for dead pixels; no fractures or breakage were found. It also survived actuation of the Frangibolt hold-down release, which ejects the lens about 15.2 cm from the body in Earth gravity, and continued to function [8].
IMX547, Sony. Global shutter CMOS imager. Ratings: 5 MP at a 2.74 micron pixel, chosen so a smaller S-mount lens can cover the format [8]. Qualification: Selected after C-mount COTS lenses proved unsuitable: they were difficult to vent in vacuum, outgassed from the adjustment mechanism grease, and added variable aperture and focus mechanisms. S-mount lenses have a fixed aperture and no moving parts. An aperture of f/4 with 6 mm and 4.4 mm focal lengths is under evaluation against lunar contrast extremes [8].

Screening recipes and detector aging

A commercially specified CCD carried a published screening recipe across three instruments and two rovers. The ChemCam e2v 42-10 units were grade-zero parts, off the shelf in terms of specification apart from an anti-etalon coating on the VNIR device, and were screened before delivery with 100 thermal cycles between -55 and +70 C plus a 72 hour burn-in at 125 C, in addition to the normal factory testing for commercial units [1]. The same part family flew again on SuperCam [3] and on SHERLOC, where the qualification change was mechanical: the detector leads were replaced with short flexible wires and relief loops so they flex with temperature rather than fracture [2].

A detector aging mode found on one flight became an operational design requirement on the next. ChemCam established that the e2v device may exhibit increased dark noise and hot and cold pixels as a function of time [2]. SHERLOC therefore precedes every spectral acquisition with a dark acquisition, giving a noise value for the detector at the current temperature, and takes intermittent 2D acquisitions to find hot or dark pixels so they can be uploaded back to the instrument and excluded from the automated analysis. As those noise values change with time, operations are modified to hold detection sensitivity. The mitigation costs an acquisition per measurement and no hardware.

Optics and mounting

Two mechanical results in this class are worth more than the sensor specifications. The IPEx stereo pair was originally split across opposite shoulders of the machine for a 16.5 cm baseline, and the structural chain between the two heads deflected and expanded enough to put stereo calibration at risk; combining both cameras into one housed unit traded depth accuracy at range for a calibration that holds [8]. On SuperCam the imaging path is shared with a laser focusing telescope, and the field of view is the compromise that fell out of that: 18.8 mrad, reached over several iterations, against a -40 to +30 C operating range [7].

Mast pointing, expected and achieved

The pointing figure a mast-mounted instrument is designed against is set on the ground and carries a named gap. ChemCam accuracy was expected to be within plus or minus 5 mrad on the basis of rover system thermal testing with the flight window and remote sensing mast articulation, against rock slab panels at about 2.7 and 4.7 m, with inter-point spacing inside a line scan good to 0.2 mrad [1]. Pointing stability under Martian conditions, wind speeds among them, was left to be checked after landing rather than verified in that test [1].

Flight experience moved the achieved figure and the requirement in opposite directions. The Mars 2020 remote sensing mast is specified at plus or minus 9.5 mrad, 2 sigma per axis in elevation and azimuth relative to the Rover Mechanical Frame, which is open loop and is not enough for SuperCam [3]. Open loop with two way-points reaches about 2 mrad on the basis of Curiosity operational experience, but the distribution carries outliers. SuperCam targets subtend less than 1 mrad, so the instrument closes the loop on its own Remote Micro-Imager images to reach plus or minus 1 mrad, falling to plus or minus 2 mrad where full-resolution Navcam images are used without way-points [3].

The science cameras above are one part of the flown record. The engineering cameras of one rover carry four more detectors, three of them commercial parts flown with a design factor rather than a dose [9].

Part	Manufacturer	Used by	Source
CMV-20000	AMS CMOSIS	perseverance (Navcam, Hazcam, Cachecam)	[9]
Python 5000	ON Semiconductor	perseverance (Lander Vision System)	[9]
Python 1300	ON Semiconductor	perseverance (EDL cameras)	[9]
IMX265	Sony	perseverance (Rover Downlook Camera)	[9]
CCD47-20 AIMO	e2v	hayabusa2 (ONC-T, W1, W2)	[13]
STAR1000 APS	Not named	rosalind-franklin (PanCam)	[14]
ECAM-P50	Malin Space Science Systems	mev-2 tracking	[15]
SPAD512	PiImaging	LunaLab analog dataset	[16]
PC-14XS CCD camera	Supercircuits	Planetary Aerobot Testbed	[17]
OV3642	OmniVision	IPEX cubesat	[18]

Ratings and qualification results

CMV-20000, AMS CMOSIS. Commercial CMOS imager in the Perseverance Navcam, Hazcam and Cachecam. Ratings: 15000 electrons of full well, 8 electrons rms read noise, 0.24 DN per electron of conversion gain, 66 dB of dynamic range and a peak signal to noise ratio of 41.8 dB [9]. Quantum efficiency with microlenses is 64.5 percent, printed in the source against a wavelength of 55 nm, which is a typographical error for 550 nm. Qualification: quoted at 20 krad(Si) with a radiation design factor of two, that is a 10 krad mission requirement carried at twice margin, and stated to meet the mission total dose performance requirement [9]. No facility, dose rate, bias condition or degradation criterion is given, so this is an engineering qualification figure and not a campaign.
Python 5000, ON Semiconductor [9]. Monochrome CMOS imager, 2592 by 2048 pixels at 4.8 microns, in the Perseverance Lander Vision System camera. Ratings: flown for the descent phase only. Qualification: a radiation design factor greater than 10, given in place of a dose and with no test conditions [9].
Python 1300, ON Semiconductor [9]. RGB color CMOS imager, 1280 by 1024 pixels at 4.8 microns, inside the FLIR Chameleon3 CM3-U3-13Y3C-CS cameras used for entry, descent and landing. Ratings: commercial cameras flown for a few minutes. Qualification: no radiation rating is quoted for the part or the camera.
IMX265, Sony [9]. Commercial CMOS imager, 2048 by 1536 pixels at 3.45 microns, inside the FLIR CM3-U3-31S4C-CS used as the Rover Downlook Camera. Ratings: commercial camera flown for the descent. Qualification: none published.
CCD47-20 AIMO, e2v [13]. Inverted-mode-operation CCD, 1056 by 1024 pixels at 13 micron pitch, the same part in all three Hayabusa2 optical navigation cameras. Ratings: 12 bit conversion at 3 MHz sampling [13]. Qualification: measured gains of 20.95, 20.86 and 20.11 electrons per DN and read noise of 38.5, 36.3 and 37.0 electrons for ONC-T, W1 and W2, with full wells of 91000, 84000 and 96000 electrons [13]. Three units of one part type differ by about 4 percent in gain and by 13 percent in full well.
STAR1000 APS, vendor not named in the source. Active pixel sensor in the Rosalind Franklin PanCam. Ratings: quantum efficiency times fill factor above 20 percent from 470 to 710 nm, falling to 7 percent at 400 nm and 3 percent at 1000 nm [14]. The wide-angle camera geology filter bands were widened at both spectral extremes specifically to hold integration time roughly constant against that rolloff. Qualification: a vendor and heritage figure of 100 krad total dose, cited by the instrument team to justify a cruise of one and a half to two years near solar maximum, and not measured in that work [14].
ECAM-P50, Malin Space Science Systems [15]. One-inch format global shutter camera with a low-distortion radiation-hardened optic, two units used for long-range tracking on the Mission Extension Vehicle 2 among 21 cameras on the vehicle. Ratings: 32 by 25 degrees per frame at 22 mm effective focal length, a vendor specification [15]. Qualification: none published.
SPAD512, PiImaging. Single-photon avalanche diode camera, the first in a published lunar analog robotics dataset. Ratings: 512 by 512 pixels at 16.38 micrometer pitch and 1 bit depth, with a 14.88 mm f/1.4 lens giving 35.5 by 35.5 degrees, mounted 470 mm above the ground [16]. Qualification: none. The source publishes the specification and defers the comparison against a conventional monochrome camera to separate work.
PC-14XS CCD camera, Supercircuits. Commercial board camera on the Planetary Aerobot Testbed, one for ground imaging and one as a crude sun sensor. Ratings: 86 degrees with a 3.6 mm lens, 0.2 lux, 380 lines, 1.92 W and 11 g each [17]. Qualification: none published.
OV3642, OmniVision [18]. Commercial 3 megapixel CMOS imager flown on the IPEX cubesat. Ratings: 1.75 micron pixel pitch behind a 4 mm lens, 67 ms integration time, 0.025 degrees of instantaneous field of view [18]. Qualification: covered by the ground dose campaign in the next section rather than by a flight result [10].

Commercial CMOS imagers characterized against total dose and displacement damage

Five commercial imagers were run at the JPL cobalt-60 facility and at the UC Davis cyclotron under a NASA commercial sensor survey, with imaging quality rather than a parametric limit as the pass criterion [10][11].

Part	Manufacturer	Facility	Source
MT9D131	Aptina	JPL cobalt-60, UC Davis cyclotron	[11]
MT9P031	Micron	JPL cobalt-60, UC Davis cyclotron	[10]
MT9T031	Micron	JPL cobalt-60, UC Davis cyclotron	[10]
OV3630	OmniVision	JPL cobalt-60, UC Davis cyclotron	[10]
OV3642	OmniVision	JPL cobalt-60, UC Davis cyclotron	[10]
OV5633	OmniVision	JPL cobalt-60, UC Davis cyclotron	[10]
TH7890M CCD	Atmel	Rensselaer Gaerttner LINAC	[12]

Campaign results

MT9D131, Aptina. Two megapixel CMOS system on chip. Ratings: powered in video mode at ambient temperature, with qualitatively unchanged color bar imaging as the criterion [11]. Qualification: 5 krad(Si) powered, 10 krad(Si) unbiased, with noticeable degradation already present at 10 krad powered and both imaging and system-on-chip function lost at 20 krad. Powered degradation at 20 krad(Si) was much more severe than the same dose delivered unpowered, and loss at 30 krad was qualitatively the same as at 20 [11]. Displacement damage tolerance is 2.5e8 MeV/g unpowered, which the authors state is not representative of a high duty cycle application because the proton irradiations were unpowered.
MT9P031, Micron. Five megapixel CMOS imager. Ratings: electronic gain 2.5 electrons per DN on a 4096 DN full scale [10]. Qualification: 5 krad(Si) acceptable for an outreach or survey camera under both powered cobalt-60 and unbiased protons, the highest level tested that year. Local dark signal non-uniformity rose from 0.71 to 7.13 DN after 5 krad(Si) of 50 MeV protons, and photo response non-uniformity from about 1.5 to 2.39 percent over 385241 pixels [10].
MT9T031, Micron. Three megapixel CMOS imager. Ratings: electronic gain 26 electrons per DN on a 1024 DN full scale, matching the manufacturer specification and unchanged after unbiased irradiation to 10 krad(Si) [10]. Qualification: 5 krad(Si) acceptable under both routes, with local dark signal non-uniformity rising from 0.181 to 1.69 DN after 5 krad(Si) of protons.
OV3630, OmniVision. Three megapixel CMOS imager. Ratings: electronic gain 55 electrons per DN [10]. Qualification: 5 krad(Si) powered under cobalt-60. Hot pixels created by proton irradiation are not corrected by this part’s on-chip functions and would need off-chip correction [10].
OV3642, OmniVision. The IPEX flight part. Ratings: tested powered in video mode at 10 rad(Si)/s under MIL-STD-883 method 1019 [10]. Qualification: 10 krad(Si) powered, the highest level tested rather than a failure point, and 1.2e8 MeV/g of displacement damage unpowered, equivalent to 5 krad(Si) at 3.16e10 protons/cm2. On-chip defective pixel canceling cut the dark frame spatial standard deviation from 9.713 to 1.222 DN after 5 krad(Si) of protons, against 1.603 and 0.187 DN before irradiation [10]. The 10 krad dark frame data set is invalidated by a register setup error, which the survey records rather than reports around.
OV5633, OmniVision. Five megapixel CMOS imager. Ratings: electronic gain 41 electrons per DN on an 8 bit output [10]. Qualification: 10 krad(Si) powered and 1.2e8 MeV/g unpowered, both the highest levels tested, with imaging qualitatively unchanged. Dark frame spatial standard deviation rose from 0.771 to 4.124 DN after 5 krad(Si) of protons with defective pixel canceling off [10].
TH7890M CCD, Atmel [12]. Multiphase pinned front-illuminated frame transfer CCD, 512 by 512 at 17 micron pixels. Ratings: measured at -85 C with iron-55 X-rays at about 1620 signal electrons [12]. Qualification: mean dark current rose 48 pA/cm2 at 20 C after 4.3e7 MeV/g of displacement damage, averaged over three samples. Vertical charge transfer efficiency after that dose was 0.99957 under 10 MeV electrons and 0.99974 under 50 MeV electrons, from pre-irradiation values of 0.99991 and 0.99993 [12]. The two electron energies deliver equal displacement damage dose and the transfer efficiency results order the wrong way round for non-ionizing energy loss scaling, while mean dark current does scale with it within the measurement spread, a ratio of 1.0 to 1.5 against a predicted 1.42.

The damage signature differs by particle. At the same 5 krad(Si) cumulative dose, cobalt-60 raises the mean dark rate with no noticeable hot pixels while 50 MeV protons produce a distinct high dark rate tail, and the cobalt-60 dark rate did not recover after several weeks of unbiased room temperature annealing [10]. A gamma dose number and a proton dose number are therefore not interchangeable for an imager, whatever the equivalence in rads.

Detectors and optics characterized for a high-dose destination

CBIRD long wavelength infrared photodiode, InAs/GaSb superlattice with a 10.2 micron cutoff [19]. Ratings: peak external quantum efficiency about 0.35 at 7 microns without an antireflection coating, operating at zero applied bias [19]. Qualification: dark current density rose from 5e-5 to 6e-3 A/cm2 at 80 K and 0.1 V after 200 krad of 68 MeV protons, a factor of 120, with an order of magnitude of that appearing in the first 15 krad step. Quantum efficiency at 8.6 microns fell only from 0.24 to 0.21 over the same dose, which the authors explain by a minority carrier diffusion length of 5 to 6 microns against a 2 micron absorber [19]. The operating bias did not shift with dose, and months at ambient recovered the dark current only from 6e-3 to 4e-3 A/cm2, so the damage is proton displacement rather than ionization.
Delta-doped and superlattice-doped silicon detectors, JPL. Ratings: back surface potential set by the doping rather than by oxide charge, which the model puts as stable in quantum efficiency up to an interface and oxide trap density of 1e14 cm-2 [20]. Qualification: superlattice-doped 200 mm CMOS detector wafers held internal quantum efficiency stable to better than 1 percent over 2.1 billion pulses at 193 and 263 nm across several months, with internal quantum efficiency near 100 percent and no measurable hysteresis or persistence [20]. The exposure is an ultraviolet lifetime test and not an ionizing dose test.
H12400-00-01 microPMT, Hamamatsu. Miniature photomultiplier for a capillary electrophoresis fluorescence instrument. Ratings: 3 mm2 photocathode against 324 mm2 on the R7600 tubes it was compared with, biased at -900 V and held at 25 C [21]. Qualification: baseline dark current rose from 2.6 pA to 10.1 nA, four orders of magnitude, after 300 krad delivered at an accelerated 13.5 rad(Si)/s, seventy-five times the Europa design dose rate, on one device with no anneal. Between powered exposures at rates bracketing the 0.170 rad/s design rate, dark current recovered only from an initial 2.2 pA to an average 55.8 pA, so the damage is cumulative as well as prompt [21]. Ultraviolet-grade silica windows produced fewer parasitic photons than borosilicate, and the microPMT was the lowest of the three tubes in output current and noise per square millimeter of photocathode.
QLD-488-50S and DL5146-101S laser diodes, QPhotonics and Sanyo. Gallium nitride laser diodes at 488 and 405 nm for the same instrument [21]. Ratings: five devices each, the 405 nm part monitored through its internal silicon feedback photodiode. Qualification: no change in optical output power or stability after 300 krad of cobalt-60 at 13.5 rad(Si)/s, the 488 nm part unpowered only for lack of facility time and the 405 nm part also run powered at 178 to 275 mrad(Si)/s to 1 krad [21]. The instrument as a whole could not be irradiated, so its estimated fluorescein detection limit under radiation, 45 to 145 pM against a 1 nM mission target, is a combination of the worst-case exposed detector signal with separately recorded noise and assumes a linear response.

References

Wiens, R. C., Maurice, S., Barraclough, B., Saccoccio, M., Barkley, W. C., Bell, I. J. F., Bender, S., Bernardin, J., Blaney, D., Blank, J., Bouyé, M., Bridges, N., Bultman, N., Caïs, P., Clanton, R. C., Clark, B., Clegg, S., Cousin, A., Cremers, D., Cros, A., DeFlores, L., Delapp, D., Dingler, R., D'Uston, C., Dyar, M. D., Elliott, T., Enemark, D., Fabre, C., Flores, M., Forni, O., Gasnault, O., Hale, T., Hays, C., Herkenhoff, K., Kan, E., Kirkland, L., Kouach, D., Landis, D., Langevin, Y., Lanza, N., LaRocca, F., Lasue, J., Latino, J., Limonadi, D., Lindensmith, C., Little, C., Mangold, N., Manhes, G., Mauchien, P., McKay, C., Miller, E., Mooney, J., Morris, R. V., Morrison, L., Nelson, T., Newsom, H., Ollila, A., Ott, M., Pares, L., Perez, R., Poitrasson, F., Provost, C., Reiter, J. W., Roberts, T., Romero, F., Sautter, V., Salazar, S., Simmonds, J. J., Stiglich, R., Storms, S., Striebig, N., Thocaven, J.-J., Trujillo, T., Ulibarri, M., Vaniman, D., Warner, N., Waterbury, R., Whitaker, R., Witt, J. and Wong-Swanson, B. (2012). The ChemCam Instrument Suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests . Space Science Reviews. Source

BibTeX

@article{wiens2012chemcam,
  title = {The ChemCam Instrument Suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests},
  author = {Wiens, Roger C. and Maurice, Sylvestre and Barraclough, Bruce and Saccoccio, Muriel and Barkley, Walter C. and Bell, III, James F. and Bender, Steve and Bernardin, John and Blaney, Diana and Blank, Jennifer and Bouyé, Marc and Bridges, Nathan and Bultman, Nathan and Caïs, Phillippe and Clanton, Robert C. and Clark, Benton and Clegg, Samuel and Cousin, Agnes and Cremers, David and Cros, Alain and DeFlores, Lauren and Delapp, Dorothea and Dingler, Robert and D'Uston, Claude and Dyar, M. Darby and Elliott, Tom and Enemark, Don and Fabre, Cecile and Flores, Mike and Forni, Olivier and Gasnault, Olivier and Hale, Thomas and Hays, Charles and Herkenhoff, Ken and Kan, Ed and Kirkland, Laurel and Kouach, Driss and Landis, David and Langevin, Yves and Lanza, Nina and LaRocca, Frank and Lasue, Jeremie and Latino, Joseph and Limonadi, Daniel and Lindensmith, Chris and Little, Cynthia and Mangold, Nicolas and Manhes, Gerard and Mauchien, Patrick and McKay, Christopher and Miller, Ed and Mooney, Joe and Morris, Richard V. and Morrison, Leland and Nelson, Tony and Newsom, Horton and Ollila, Ann and Ott, Melanie and Pares, Laurent and Perez, René and Poitrasson, Franck and Provost, Cheryl and Reiter, Joseph W. and Roberts, Tom and Romero, Frank and Sautter, Violaine and Salazar, Steven and Simmonds, John J. and Stiglich, Ralph and Storms, Steven and Striebig, Nicolas and Thocaven, Jean-Jacques and Trujillo, Tanner and Ulibarri, Mike and Vaniman, David and Warner, Noah and Waterbury, Rob and Whitaker, Robert and Witt, James and Wong-Swanson, Belinda},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {170},
  pages = {167--227},
  year = {2012},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-012-9902-4},
  abstract = {The ChemCam instrument suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity provides remote compositional information using the first laser-induced breakdown spectrometer (LIBS) on a planetary mission, and provides sample texture and morphology data using a remote micro-imager (RMI). Overall, ChemCam supports MSL with five capabilities: remote classification of rock and soil characteristics; quantitative elemental compositions including light elements like hydrogen and some elements to which LIBS is uniquely sensitive (e.g., Li, Be, Rb, Sr, Ba); remote removal of surface dust and depth profiling through surface coatings; context imaging; and passive spectroscopy over the 240–905 nm range. ChemCam is built in two sections: The mast unit, consisting of a laser, telescope, RMI, and associated electronics, resides on the rover’s mast, and is described in a companion paper. ChemCam’s body unit, which is mounted in the body of the rover, comprises an optical demultiplexer, three spectrometers, detectors, their coolers, and associated electronics and data handling logic. Additional instrument components include a 6 m optical fiber which transfers the LIBS light from the telescope to the body unit, and a set of onboard calibration targets. ChemCam was integrated and tested at Los Alamos National Laboratory where it also underwent LIBS calibration with 69 geological standards prior to integration with the rover. Post-integration testing used coordinated mast and instrument commands, including LIBS line scans on rock targets during system-level thermal-vacuum tests. In this paper we describe the body unit, optical fiber, and calibration targets, and the assembly, testing, and verification of the instrument prior to launch.}
}

Bhartia, R., Beegle, L. W., DeFlores, L., Abbey, W., Razzell Hollis, J., Uckert, K., Monacelli, B., Edgett, K. S., Kennedy, M. R., Sylvia, M., Aldrich, D., Anderson, M., Asher, S. A., Bailey, Z., Boyd, K., Burton, A. S., Caffrey, M., Calaway, M. J., Calvet, R., Cameron, B., Caplinger, M. A., Carrier, B. L., Chen, N., Chen, A., Clark, M. J., Clegg, S., Conrad, P. G., Cooper, M., Davis, K. N., Ehlmann, B., Facto, L., Fries, M. D., Garrison, D. H., Gasway, D., Ghaemi, F. T., Graff, T. G., Hand, K. P., Harris, C., Hein, J. D., Heinz, N., Herzog, H., Hochberg, E., Houck, A., Hug, W. F., Jensen, E. H., Kah, L. C., Kennedy, J., Krylo, R., Lam, J., Lindeman, M., McGlown, J., Michel, J., Miller, E., Mills, Z., Minitti, M. E., Mok, F., Moore, J., Nealson, K. H., Nelson, A., Newell, R., Nixon, B. E., Nordman, D. A., Nuding, D., Orellana, S., Pauken, M., Peterson, G., Pollock, R., Quinn, H., Quinto, C., Ravine, M. A., Reid, R. D., Riendeau, J., Ross, A. J., Sackos, J., Schaffner, J. A., Schwochert, M., Shelton, M. O., Simon, R., Smith, C. L., Sobron, P., Steadman, K., Steele, A., Thiessen, D., Tran, V. D., Tsai, T., Tuite, M., Tung, E., Wehbe, R., Weinberg, R., Weiner, R. H., Wiens, R. C., Williford, K., Wollonciej, C., Wu, Y.-H., Yingst, R. A. and Zan, J. (2021). Perseverance's Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) Investigation . Space Science Reviews, 58. Source

BibTeX

@article{bhartia2021perseverance,
  title = {Perseverance's Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) Investigation},
  author = {Bhartia, Rohit and Beegle, Luther W. and DeFlores, Lauren and Abbey, William and Razzell Hollis, Joseph and Uckert, Kyle and Monacelli, Brian and Edgett, Kenneth S. and Kennedy, Megan R. and Sylvia, Margarite and Aldrich, David and Anderson, Mark and Asher, Sanford A. and Bailey, Zachary and Boyd, Kerry and Burton, Aaron S. and Caffrey, Michael and Calaway, Michael J. and Calvet, Robert and Cameron, Bruce and Caplinger, Michael A. and Carrier, Brandi L. and Chen, Nataly and Chen, Amy and Clark, Matthew J. and Clegg, Samuel and Conrad, Pamela G. and Cooper, Moogega and Davis, Kristine N. and Ehlmann, Bethany and Facto, Linda and Fries, Marc D. and Garrison, Dan H. and Gasway, Denine and Ghaemi, F. Tony and Graff, Trevor G. and Hand, Kevin P. and Harris, Cathleen and Hein, Jeffrey D. and Heinz, Nicholas and Herzog, Harrison and Hochberg, Eric and Houck, Andrew and Hug, William F. and Jensen, Elsa H. and Kah, Linda C. and Kennedy, John and Krylo, Robert and Lam, Johnathan and Lindeman, Mark and McGlown, Justin and Michel, John and Miller, Ed and Mills, Zachary and Minitti, Michelle E. and Mok, Fai and Moore, James and Nealson, Kenneth H. and Nelson, Anthony and Newell, Raymond and Nixon, Brian E. and Nordman, Daniel A. and Nuding, Danielle and Orellana, Sonny and Pauken, Michael and Peterson, Glen and Pollock, Randy and Quinn, Heather and Quinto, Claire and Ravine, Michael A. and Reid, Ray D. and Riendeau, Joe and Ross, Amy J. and Sackos, Joshua and Schaffner, Jacob A. and Schwochert, Mark and Shelton, Molly O and Simon, Rufus and Smith, Caroline L. and Sobron, Pablo and Steadman, Kimberly and Steele, Andrew and Thiessen, Dave and Tran, Vinh D. and Tsai, Tony and Tuite, Michael and Tung, Eric and Wehbe, Rami and Weinberg, Rachel and Weiner, Ryan H. and Wiens, Roger C. and Williford, Kenneth and Wollonciej, Chris and Wu, Yen-Hung and Yingst, R. Aileen and Zan, Jason},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {217},
  number = {58},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-021-00812-z},
  abstract = {Abstract The Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) is a robotic arm-mounted instrument on NASA’s Perseverance rover. SHERLOC has two primary boresights. The Spectroscopy boresight generates spatially resolved chemical maps using fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy coupled to microscopic images (10.1 μm/pixel). The second boresight is a Wide Angle Topographic Sensor for Operations and eNgineering (WATSON); a copy of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) that obtains color images from microscopic scales (∼13 μm/pixel) to infinity. SHERLOC Spectroscopy focuses a 40 μs pulsed deep UV neon-copper laser (248.6 nm), to a ∼100 μm spot on a target at a working distance of ∼48 mm. Fluorescence emissions from organics, and Raman scattered photons from organics and minerals, are spectrally resolved with a single diffractive grating spectrograph with a spectral range of 250 to ∼370 nm. Because the fluorescence and Raman regions are naturally separated with deep UV excitation (&lt;250 nm), the Raman region ∼ 800 – 4000 cm −1 (250 to 273 nm) and the fluorescence region (274 to ∼370 nm) are acquired simultaneously without time gating or additional mechanisms. SHERLOC science begins by using an Autofocus Context Imager (ACI) to obtain target focus and acquire 10.1 μm/pixel greyscale images. Chemical maps of organic and mineral signatures are acquired by the orchestration of an internal scanning mirror that moves the focused laser spot across discrete points on the target surface where spectra are captured on the spectrometer detector. ACI images and chemical maps (&lt; 100 μm/mapping pixel) will enable the first Mars in situ view of the spatial distribution and interaction between organics, minerals, and chemicals important to the assessment of potential biogenicity (containing CHNOPS). Single robotic arm placement chemical maps can cover areas up to 7x7 mm in area and, with the &lt; 10 min acquisition time per map, larger mosaics are possible with arm movements. This microscopic view of the organic geochemistry of a target at the Perseverance field site, when combined with the other instruments, such as Mastcam-Z, PIXL, and SuperCam, will enable unprecedented analysis of geological materials for both scientific research and determination of which samples to collect and cache for Mars sample return.}
}

Maurice, S., Wiens, R. C., Bernardi, P., Caïs, P., Robinson, S. H., Nelson, T., Gasnault, O., Reess, J.-M., Deleuze, M., Rull, F., Manrique, J. A., Abbaki, S., Anderson, R. B., André, Y., Angel, S., Arana, G., Battault, T., Beck, P., Benzerara, K., Bernard, S., Berthias, J.-P., Beyssac, O., Bonafous, M., Bousquet, B., Boutillier, M., Cadu, A., Castro, K., Chapron, F., Chide, B., Clark, K., Clavé, E., Clegg, S., Cloutis, E., Collin, C., Cordoba, E. C., Cousin, A., Dameury, J.-C., D'Anna, W., Daydou, Y., Debus, A., Deflores, L., Dehouck, E., Delapp, D., De Los Santos, G., Donny, C., Doressoundiram, A., Dromart, G., Dubois, B., Dufour, A., Dupieux, M., Egan, M., Ervin, J., Fabre, C., Fau, A., Fischer, W., Forni, O., Fouchet, T., Frydenvang, J., Gauffre, S., Gauthier, M., Gharakanian, V., Gilard, O., Gontijo, I., Gonzalez, R., Granena, D., Grotzinger, J., Hassen-Khodja, R., Heim, M., Hello, Y., Hervet, G., Humeau, O., Jacob, X., Jacquinod, S., Johnson, J. R., Kouach, D., Lacombe, G., Lanza, N., Lapauw, L., Laserna, J., Lasue, J., Le Deit, L., Le Mouélic, S., Le Comte, E., Lee, Q.-M., Legett, I. C., Leveille, R., Lewin, E., Leyrat, C., Lopez-Reyes, G., Lorenz, R., Lucero, B., Madariaga, J. M., Madsen, S., Madsen, M., Mangold, N., Manni, F., Mariscal, J.-F., Martinez-Frias, J., Mathieu, K., Mathon, R., McCabe, K. P., McConnochie, T., McLennan, S. M., Mekki, J., Melikechi, N., Meslin, P.-Y., Micheau, Y., Michel, Y., Michel, J. M., Mimoun, D., Misra, A., Montagnac, G., Montaron, C., Montmessin, F., Moros, J., Mousset, V., Morizet, Y., Murdoch, N., Newell, R. T., Newsom, H., Nguyen Tuong, N., Ollila, A. M., Orttner, G., Oudda, L., Pares, L., Parisot, J., Parot, Y., Pérez, R., Pheav, D., Picot, L., Pilleri, P., Pilorget, C., Pinet, P., Pont, G., Poulet, F., Quantin-Nataf, C., Quertier, B., Rambaud, D., Rapin, W., Romano, P., Roucayrol, L., Royer, C., Ruellan, M., Sandoval, B., Sautter, V., Schoppers, M. J., Schröder, S., Seran, H.-C., Sharma, S. K., Sobron, P., Sodki, M., Sournac, A., Sridhar, V., Standarovsky, D., Storms, S., Striebig, N., Tatat, M., Toplis, M., Torre-Fdez, I., Toulemont, N., Velasco, C., Veneranda, M., Venhaus, D., Virmontois, C., Viso, M., Willis, P. and Wong, K. (2021). The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the Mars 2020 Rover: Science Objectives and Mast-Unit Description . Space Science Reviews, 47. Source

BibTeX

@article{maurice2021supercam,
  title = {The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the Mars 2020 Rover: Science Objectives and Mast-Unit Description},
  author = {Maurice, Sylvestre and Wiens, Roger C. and Bernardi, Pernelle and Caïs, Phillippe and Robinson, Scott H. and Nelson, Tony and Gasnault, Olivier and Reess, Jean-Michel and Deleuze, Muriel and Rull, Fernando and Manrique, Jose Antonio and Abbaki, Sadok and Anderson, Ryan B. and André, Yves and Angel, S.M. and Arana, Gorka and Battault, T. and Beck, Pierre and Benzerara, Karim and Bernard, Sylvain and Berthias, J.-P. and Beyssac, Olivier and Bonafous, Marion and Bousquet, Bruno and Boutillier, M. and Cadu, A. and Castro, Kepa and Chapron, Frédéric and Chide, Baptiste and Clark, K. and Clavé, Elise and Clegg, S. and Cloutis, E. and Collin, Claude and Cordoba, Elizabeth C. and Cousin, A. and Dameury, J.-C. and D'Anna, W. and Daydou, Yves and Debus, Andre and Deflores, Lauren and Dehouck, Erwin and Delapp, Dorothea and De Los Santos, Greg and Donny, C. and Doressoundiram, Alain and Dromart, Gilles and Dubois, Bruno and Dufour, A. and Dupieux, M. and Egan, Miles and Ervin, Joan and Fabre, C. and Fau, Amaury and Fischer, Woodward and Forni, Olivier and Fouchet, Thierry and Frydenvang, Jens and Gauffre, S. and Gauthier, M. and Gharakanian, V. and Gilard, Olivier and Gontijo, Ivair and Gonzalez, R. and Granena, D. and Grotzinger, J. and Hassen-Khodja, Rafik and Heim, M. and Hello, Y. and Hervet, G. and Humeau, Olivier and Jacob, Xavier and Jacquinod, Sophie and Johnson, Jeffrey R. and Kouach, Driss and Lacombe, G. and Lanza, Nina and Lapauw, Laurent and Laserna, Javier and Lasue, J. and Le Deit, Laetitia and Le Mouélic, Stéphane and Le Comte, E. and Lee, Qiu-Mei and Legett, IV, C. and Leveille, Richard and Lewin, Eric and Leyrat, C. and Lopez-Reyes, Guillermo and Lorenz, R. and Lucero, Briana and Madariaga, Juan Manuel and Madsen, Soren and Madsen, M. and Mangold, N. and Manni, F. and Mariscal, J.-F. and Martinez-Frias, Jesus and Mathieu, K. and Mathon, R. and McCabe, Kevin P. and McConnochie, T. and McLennan, Scott M. and Mekki, J. and Melikechi, Noureddine and Meslin, Pierre-Yves and Micheau, Y. and Michel, Y. and Michel, John M. and Mimoun, David and Misra, A. and Montagnac, Gilles and Montaron, Christophe and Montmessin, Franck and Moros, J. and Mousset, V. and Morizet, Y. and Murdoch, Naomi and Newell, Raymond T. and Newsom, Horton and Nguyen Tuong, N. and Ollila, Ann M. and Orttner, G. and Oudda, L. and Pares, Laurent and Parisot, Jérôme and Parot, Yann and Pérez, René and Pheav, D. and Picot, L. and Pilleri, Paolo and Pilorget, C. and Pinet, P. and Pont, Gabriel and Poulet, F. and Quantin-Nataf, Cathy and Quertier, Benjamin and Rambaud, D. and Rapin, William and Romano, P. and Roucayrol, L. and Royer, C. and Ruellan, M. and Sandoval, B.F. and Sautter, Violaine and Schoppers, Marcel J. and Schröder, S. and Seran, H.-C. and Sharma, Shiv K. and Sobron, Pablo and Sodki, M. and Sournac, A. and Sridhar, Vishnu and Standarovsky, D. and Storms, Steven and Striebig, Nicolas and Tatat, M. and Toplis, M. and Torre-Fdez, Imanol and Toulemont, N. and Velasco, C. and Veneranda, Marco and Venhaus, Dawn and Virmontois, C. and Viso, M. and Willis, P. and Wong, K.W.},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {217},
  number = {47},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-021-00807-w},
  abstract = {Abstract On the NASA 2020 rover mission to Jezero crater, the remote determination of the texture, mineralogy and chemistry of rocks is essential to quickly and thoroughly characterize an area and to optimize the selection of samples for return to Earth. As part of the Perseverance payload, SuperCam is a suite of five techniques that provide critical and complementary observations via Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), Time-Resolved Raman and Luminescence (TRR/L), visible and near-infrared spectroscopy (VISIR), high-resolution color imaging (RMI), and acoustic recording (MIC). SuperCam operates at remote distances, primarily 2–7 m, while providing data at sub-mm to mm scales. We report on SuperCam’s science objectives in the context of the Mars 2020 mission goals and ways the different techniques can address these questions. The instrument is made up of three separate subsystems: the Mast Unit is designed and built in France; the Body Unit is provided by the United States; the calibration target holder is contributed by Spain, and the targets themselves by the entire science team. This publication focuses on the design, development, and tests of the Mast Unit; companion papers describe the other units. The goal of this work is to provide an understanding of the technical choices made, the constraints that were imposed, and ultimately the validated performance of the flight model as it leaves Earth, and it will serve as the foundation for Mars operations and future processing of the data.}
}

Edgett, K. S., Yingst, R. A., Ravine, M. A., Caplinger, M. A., Maki, J. N., Ghaemi, F. T., Schaffner, J. A., Bell, I. J. F., Edwards, L. J., Herkenhoff, K. E., Heydari, E., Kah, L. C., Lemmon, M. T., Minitti, M. E., Olson, T. S., Parker, T. J., Rowland, S. K., Schieber, J., Sullivan, R. J., Sumner, D. Y., Thomas, P. C., Jensen, E. H., Simmonds, J. J., Sengstacken, A. J., Willson, R. G. and Goetz, W. (2012). Curiosity's Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) Investigation . Space Science Reviews. Source

BibTeX

@article{edgett2012curiosity,
  title = {Curiosity's Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) Investigation},
  author = {Edgett, Kenneth S. and Yingst, R. Aileen and Ravine, Michael A. and Caplinger, Michael A. and Maki, Justin N. and Ghaemi, F. Tony and Schaffner, Jacob A. and Bell, III, James F. and Edwards, Laurence J. and Herkenhoff, Kenneth E. and Heydari, Ezat and Kah, Linda C. and Lemmon, Mark T. and Minitti, Michelle E. and Olson, Timothy S. and Parker, Timothy J. and Rowland, Scott K. and Schieber, Juergen and Sullivan, Robert J. and Sumner, Dawn Y. and Thomas, Peter C. and Jensen, Elsa H. and Simmonds, John J. and Sengstacken, Aaron J. and Willson, Reg G. and Goetz, Walter},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {170},
  pages = {259--317},
  year = {2012},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-012-9910-4},
  abstract = {The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) investigation will use a 2-megapixel color camera with a focusable macro lens aboard the rover, Curiosity, to investigate the stratigraphy and grain-scale texture, structure, mineralogy, and morphology of geologic materials in northwestern Gale crater. Of particular interest is the stratigraphic record of a ∼5 km thick layered rock sequence exposed on the slopes of Aeolis Mons (also known as Mount Sharp). The instrument consists of three parts, a camera head mounted on the turret at the end of a robotic arm, an electronics and data storage assembly located inside the rover body, and a calibration target mounted on the robotic arm shoulder azimuth actuator housing. MAHLI can acquire in-focus images at working distances from ∼2.1 cm to infinity. At the minimum working distance, image pixel scale is ∼14 μm per pixel and very coarse silt grains can be resolved. At the working distance of the Mars Exploration Rover Microscopic Imager cameras aboard Spirit and Opportunity, MAHLI’s resolution is comparable at ∼30 μm per pixel. Onboard capabilities include autofocus, auto-exposure, sub-framing, video imaging, Bayer pattern color interpolation, lossy and lossless compression, focus merging of up to 8 focus stack images, white light and longwave ultraviolet (365 nm) illumination of nearby subjects, and 8 gigabytes of non-volatile memory data storage.}
}

Bell, I. J., Maki, J. N., Mehall, G. L., Ravine, M. A., Caplinger, M. A., Bailey, Z., Brylow, S., Schaffner, J. A., Kinch, K. M., Madsen, M., Winhold, A. G., Hayes, A. G., Corlies, P., Tate, C., Barrington, M., Cisneros, E., Jensen, E., Paris, K., Crawford, K., Rojas, C., Mehall, L., Joseph, J., Proton, J., Cluff, N., Deen, R. G., Betts, B., Cloutis, E., Coates, A. J., Colaprete, A., Edgett, K. S., Ehlmann, B. L., Fagents, S. A., Grotzinger, J. P., Hardgrove, C., Herkenhoff, K., Horgan, B., Jaumann, R., Johnson, J. R., Lemmon, M., Paar, G., Caballo-Perucha, M., Gupta, S., Traxler, C., Preusker, F., Rice, M. S., Robinson, M. S., Schmitz, N., Sullivan, R. and Wolff, M. (2021). The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover Mast Camera Zoom (Mastcam-Z) Multispectral, Stereoscopic Imaging Investigation . Space Science Reviews, 24. Source

BibTeX

@article{bell2021mars,
  title = {The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover Mast Camera Zoom (Mastcam-Z) Multispectral, Stereoscopic Imaging Investigation},
  author = {Bell, III, J.F. and Maki, Justin N. and Mehall, Greg L. and Ravine, Michael A. and Caplinger, Michael A. and Bailey, Z.J. and Brylow, S. and Schaffner, Jacob A. and Kinch, Kjartan M. and Madsen, M.B. and Winhold, Andrew G. and Hayes, Alexander G. and Corlies, Paul and Tate, C. and Barrington, Megan and Cisneros, Ernest and Jensen, E. and Paris, Kristen and Crawford, Kelsie and Rojas, Corrine and Mehall, Laura and Joseph, Jonathan and Proton, J.B. and Cluff, Nathan and Deen, Robert G. and Betts, B. and Cloutis, E. and Coates, Andrew J. and Colaprete, Anthony and Edgett, Kenneth S. and Ehlmann, Bethany L. and Fagents, Sarah A. and Grotzinger, John P. and Hardgrove, Craig and Herkenhoff, K.E. and Horgan, B. and Jaumann, Ralf and Johnson, Jeffrey R. and Lemmon, M. and Paar, Gerhard and Caballo-Perucha, M. and Gupta, Sanjeev and Traxler, Christoph and Preusker, Frank and Rice, Melissa S. and Robinson, Mark S. and Schmitz, Nicole and Sullivan, R. and Wolff, M.J.},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {217},
  number = {24},
  pages = {24--24},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-020-00755-x},
  abstract = {Abstract Mastcam-Z is a multispectral, stereoscopic imaging investigation on the Mars 2020 mission’s Perseverance rover. Mastcam-Z consists of a pair of focusable, 4:1 zoomable cameras that provide broadband red/green/blue and narrowband 400-1000 nm color imaging with fields of view from 25.6° × 19.2° (26 mm focal length at 283 μrad/pixel) to 6.2° × 4.6° (110 mm focal length at 67.4 μrad/pixel). The cameras can resolve (≥ 5 pixels) ∼0.7 mm features at 2 m and ∼3.3 cm features at 100 m distance. Mastcam-Z shares significant heritage with the Mastcam instruments on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover. Each Mastcam-Z camera consists of zoom, focus, and filter wheel mechanisms and a 1648 × 1214 pixel charge-coupled device detector and electronics. The two Mastcam-Z cameras are mounted with a 24.4 cm stereo baseline and 2.3° total toe-in on a camera plate ∼2 m above the surface on the rover’s Remote Sensing Mast, which provides azimuth and elevation actuation. A separate digital electronics assembly inside the rover provides power, data processing and storage, and the interface to the rover computer. Primary and secondary Mastcam-Z calibration targets mounted on the rover top deck enable tactical reflectance calibration. Mastcam-Z multispectral, stereo, and panoramic images will be used to provide detailed morphology, topography, and geologic context along the rover’s traverse; constrain mineralogic, photometric, and physical properties of surface materials; monitor and characterize atmospheric and astronomical phenomena; and document the rover’s sample extraction and caching locations. Mastcam-Z images will also provide key engineering information to support sample selection and other rover driving and tool/instrument operations decisions.}
}

Blake, D., Vaniman, D., Achilles, C., Anderson, R., Bish, D., Bristow, T., Chen, C., Chipera, S., Crisp, J., Des Marais, D., Downs, R. T., Farmer, J., Feldman, S., Fonda, M., Gailhanou, M., Ma, H., Ming, D. W., Morris, R. V., Sarrazin, P., Stolper, E., Treiman, A. and Yen, A. (2012). Characterization and Calibration of the CheMin Mineralogical Instrument on Mars Science Laboratory . Space Science Reviews. Source

BibTeX

@article{blake2012characterization,
  title = {Characterization and Calibration of the CheMin Mineralogical Instrument on Mars Science Laboratory},
  author = {Blake, David and Vaniman, David and Achilles, Cherie and Anderson, Robert and Bish, David and Bristow, Tom and Chen, Curtis and Chipera, Steve and Crisp, Joy and Des Marais, David and Downs, Robert T. and Farmer, Jack and Feldman, Sabrina and Fonda, Mark and Gailhanou, Marc and Ma, Hongwei and Ming, Doug W. and Morris, Richard V. and Sarrazin, Philippe and Stolper, Ed and Treiman, Allan and Yen, Albert},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {170},
  pages = {341--399},
  year = {2012},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-012-9905-1},
  abstract = {A principal goal of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity is to identify and characterize past habitable environments on Mars. Determination of the mineralogical and chemical composition of Martian rocks and soils constrains their formation and alteration pathways, providing information on climate and habitability through time. The CheMin X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument on MSL will return accurate mineralogical identifications and quantitative phase abundances for scooped soil samples and drilled rock powders collected at Gale Crater during Curiosity’s 1-Mars-year nominal mission. The instrument has a Co X-ray source and a cooled charge-coupled device (CCD) detector arranged in transmission geometry with the sample. CheMin’s angular range of 5 ∘ to 50 ∘ 2 θ with <0.35 ∘ 2 θ resolution is sufficient to identify and quantify virtually all minerals. CheMin’s XRF requirement was descoped for technical and budgetary reasons. However, X-ray energy discrimination is still required to separate Co K α from Co K β and Fe K α photons. The X-ray energy-dispersive histograms (EDH) returned along with XRD for instrument evaluation should be useful in identifying elements Z >13 that are contained in the sample. The CheMin XRD is equipped with internal chemical and mineralogical standards and 27 reusable sample cells with either Mylar ® or Kapton ® windows to accommodate acidic-to-basic environmental conditions. The CheMin flight model (FM) instrument will be calibrated utilizing analyses of common samples against a demonstration-model (DM) instrument and CheMin-like laboratory instruments. The samples include phyllosilicate and sulfate minerals that are expected at Gale crater on the basis of remote sensing observations.}
}

Wiens, R. C., Maurice, S., Robinson, S. H., Nelson, A. E., Cais, P., Bernardi, P., Newell, R. T., Clegg, S., Sharma, S. K., Storms, S., Deming, J., Beckman, D., Ollila, A. M., Gasnault, O., Anderson, R. B., André, Y., Angel, S. M., Arana, G., Auden, E., Beck, P., Becker, J., Benzerara, K., Bernard, S., Beyssac, O., Borges, L., Bousquet, B., Boyd, K., Caffrey, M., Carlson, J., Castro, K., Celis, J., Chide, B., Clark, K., Cloutis, E., Cordoba, E. C., Cousin, A., Dale, M., Deflores, L., Delapp, D., Deleuze, M., Dirmyer, M., Donny, C., Dromart, G., Duran, M. G., Egan, M., Ervin, J., Fabre, C., Fau, A., Fischer, W., Forni, O., Fouchet, T., Fresquez, R., Frydenvang, J., Gasway, D., Gontijo, I., Grotzinger, J., Jacob, X., Jacquinod, S., Johnson, J. R., Klisiewicz, R. A., Lake, J., Lanza, N., Laserna, J., Lasue, J., Le Mouélic, S., Legett, I. C., Leveille, R., Lewin, E., Lopez-Reyes, G., Lorenz, R., Lorigny, E., Love, S. P., Lucero, B., Madariaga, J. M., Madsen, M., Madsen, S., Mangold, N., Manrique, J. A., Martinez, J., Martinez-Frias, J., McCabe, K. P., McConnochie, T. H., McGlown, J. M., McLennan, S. M., Melikechi, N., Meslin, P.-Y., Michel, J. M., Mimoun, D., Misra, A., Montagnac, G., Montmessin, F., Mousset, V., Murdoch, N., Newsom, H., Ott, L. A., Ousnamer, Z. R., Pares, L., Parot, Y., Pawluczyk, R., Peterson, C. G., Pilleri, P., Pinet, P., Pont, G., Poulet, F., Provost, C., Quertier, B., Quinn, H., Rapin, W., Reess, J.-M., Regan, A. H., Reyes-Newell, A. L., Romano, P. J., Royer, C., Rull, F., Sandoval, B., Sarrao, J. H., Sautter, V., Schoppers, M. J., Schröder, S., Seitz, D., Shepherd, T., Sobron, P., Dubois, B., Sridhar, V., Toplis, M. J., Torre-Fdez, I., Trettel, I. A., Underwood, M., Valdez, A., Valdez, J., Venhaus, D. and Willis, P. (2021). The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests . Space Science Reviews, 4. Source

BibTeX

@article{wiens2021supercam,
  title = {The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests},
  author = {Wiens, Roger C. and Maurice, Sylvestre and Robinson, Scott H. and Nelson, Anthony E. and Cais, Philippe and Bernardi, Pernelle and Newell, Raymond T. and Clegg, Sam and Sharma, Shiv K. and Storms, Steven and Deming, Jonathan and Beckman, Darrel and Ollila, Ann M. and Gasnault, Olivier and Anderson, Ryan B. and André, Yves and Angel, S. Michael and Arana, Gorka and Auden, Elizabeth and Beck, Pierre and Becker, Joseph and Benzerara, Karim and Bernard, Sylvain and Beyssac, Olivier and Borges, Louis and Bousquet, Bruno and Boyd, Kerry and Caffrey, Michael and Carlson, Jeffrey and Castro, Kepa and Celis, Jorden and Chide, Baptiste and Clark, Kevin and Cloutis, Edward and Cordoba, Elizabeth C. and Cousin, Agnes and Dale, Magdalena and Deflores, Lauren and Delapp, Dorothea and Deleuze, Muriel and Dirmyer, Matthew and Donny, Christophe and Dromart, Gilles and Duran, M. George and Egan, Miles and Ervin, Joan and Fabre, Cecile and Fau, Amaury and Fischer, Woodward and Forni, Olivier and Fouchet, Thierry and Fresquez, Reuben and Frydenvang, Jens and Gasway, Denine and Gontijo, Ivair and Grotzinger, John and Jacob, Xavier and Jacquinod, Sophie and Johnson, Jeffrey R. and Klisiewicz, Roberta A. and Lake, James and Lanza, Nina and Laserna, Javier and Lasue, Jeremie and Le Mouélic, Stéphane and Legett, IV, Carey and Leveille, Richard and Lewin, Eric and Lopez-Reyes, Guillermo and Lorenz, Ralph and Lorigny, Eric and Love, Steven P. and Lucero, Briana and Madariaga, Juan Manuel and Madsen, Morten and Madsen, Soren and Mangold, Nicolas and Manrique, Jose Antonio and Martinez, J.P. and Martinez-Frias, Jesus and McCabe, Kevin P. and McConnochie, Timothy H. and McGlown, Justin M. and McLennan, Scott M. and Melikechi, Noureddine and Meslin, Pierre-Yves and Michel, John M. and Mimoun, David and Misra, Anupam and Montagnac, Gilles and Montmessin, Franck and Mousset, Valerie and Murdoch, Naomi and Newsom, Horton and Ott, Logan A. and Ousnamer, Zachary R. and Pares, Laurent and Parot, Yann and Pawluczyk, Rafal and Peterson, C. Glen and Pilleri, Paolo and Pinet, Patrick and Pont, Gabriel and Poulet, Francois and Provost, Cheryl and Quertier, Benjamin and Quinn, Heather and Rapin, William and Reess, Jean-Michel and Regan, Amy H. and Reyes-Newell, Adriana L. and Romano, Philip J. and Royer, Clement and Rull, Fernando and Sandoval, Benigno and Sarrao, Joseph H. and Sautter, Violaine and Schoppers, Marcel J. and Schröder, Susanne and Seitz, Daniel and Shepherd, Terra and Sobron, Pablo and Dubois, Bruno and Sridhar, Vishnu and Toplis, Michael J. and Torre-Fdez, Imanol and Trettel, Ian A. and Underwood, Mark and Valdez, Andres and Valdez, Jacob and Venhaus, Dawn and Willis, Peter},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {217},
  number = {4},
  pages = {4--4},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-020-00777-5},
  abstract = {Abstract The SuperCam instrument suite provides the Mars 2020 rover, Perseverance, with a number of versatile remote-sensing techniques that can be used at long distance as well as within the robotic-arm workspace. These include laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), remote time-resolved Raman and luminescence spectroscopies, and visible and infrared (VISIR; separately referred to as VIS and IR) reflectance spectroscopy. A remote micro-imager (RMI) provides high-resolution color context imaging, and a microphone can be used as a stand-alone tool for environmental studies or to determine physical properties of rocks and soils from shock waves of laser-produced plasmas. SuperCam is built in three parts: The mast unit (MU), consisting of the laser, telescope, RMI, IR spectrometer, and associated electronics, is described in a companion paper. The on-board calibration targets are described in another companion paper. Here we describe SuperCam’s body unit (BU) and testing of the integrated instrument. The BU, mounted inside the rover body, receives light from the MU via a 5.8 m optical fiber. The light is split into three wavelength bands by a demultiplexer, and is routed via fiber bundles to three optical spectrometers, two of which (UV and violet; 245–340 and 385–465 nm) are crossed Czerny-Turner reflection spectrometers, nearly identical to their counterparts on ChemCam. The third is a high-efficiency transmission spectrometer containing an optical intensifier capable of gating exposures to 100 ns or longer, with variable delay times relative to the laser pulse. This spectrometer covers 535–853 nm ( $105\text{--}7070~\text{cm}^{-1}$ 105 – 7070 cm − 1 Raman shift relative to the 532 nm green laser beam) with $12~\text{cm}^{-1}$ 12 cm − 1 full-width at half-maximum peak resolution in the Raman fingerprint region. The BU electronics boards interface with the rover and control the instrument, returning data to the rover. Thermal systems maintain a warm temperature during cruise to Mars to avoid contamination on the optics, and cool the detectors during operations on Mars. Results obtained with the integrated instrument demonstrate its capabilities for LIBS, for which a library of 332 standards was developed. Examples of Raman and VISIR spectroscopy are shown, demonstrating clear mineral identification with both techniques. Luminescence spectra demonstrate the utility of having both spectral and temporal dimensions. Finally, RMI and microphone tests on the rover demonstrate the capabilities of these subsystems as well.}
}

Schuler, J. M., Smith, J. D., Nick, A. J., Buckles, B. C., Dyas, J. E., Ortega, V. V., Cloud, J. M., Dokos, A. G., Zhang, E. L., Wang, J. J., Baron, M. A., Muller, T. J., Clark, C. J. and Howe, M. W. (2024). ISRU Pilot Excavator (IPEx) Technology Readiness Level 5 Design Overview . AIAA AVIATION Forum and ASCEND, 20240008162. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{schuler2024isru,
  title = {ISRU Pilot Excavator (IPEx) Technology Readiness Level 5 Design Overview},
  author = {Schuler, Jason M. and Smith, Jonathan D. and Nick, Andrew J. and Buckles, Bradley C. and Dyas, Jeffrey E. and Ortega, Victoria V. and Cloud, Joseph M. and Dokos, Adam G. and Zhang, Elizabeth L. and Wang, Jerry J. and Baron, Michael A. and Muller, Thomas J. and Clark, Casey J. and Howe, Musashi W.},
  booktitle = {AIAA AVIATION Forum and ASCEND},
  number = {20240008162},
  institution = {NASA},
  year = {2024},
  doi = {10.2514/6.2024-4890},
  abstract = {This paper details the mechanical and mechatronic design of the Technology Readiness Level (TRL)-5 In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) Pilot Excavator (IPEx). IPEx is a robotic excavator designed for a technology demonstration of regolith mining in the lunar south pole region. The novel design uses pairs of counter-acting excavation tools called bucket drums, that dig at the same time in opposing directions to reduce the reaction force needed, thereby enabling mining with a small, low-mass, robotic system. IPEx builds on the prior work of the Regolith Advanced Surface Systems Operations Robot (RASSOR), which is the TRL-4 implementation of this concept. The TRL-5 IPEx subsystems that are discussed in this paper include: Regolith Delivery Subsystem (RDS), Mobility Subsystem (MS), Cameras and Dust Mitigation Subsystem (CDMS), and Thermal Control Subsystem (TCS). Each subsystem is described in detail with rationale for design selections. Dust tolerance is a key feature for IPEx, and this paper details a thermal control system with an actuated radiator cover and phase change material as well as camera modules with removable electrodynamic dust shields (EDS). Additional components such as actuators, wheels, and bucket drums are discussed in detail. Due to their complexity, the avionics and software subsystems will be discussed in a separate publication.}
}

Maki, J. N., Gruel, D., McKinney, C., Ravine, M. A., Morales, M., Lee, D., Willson, R., Copley-Woods, D., Valvo, M., Goodsall, T., McGuire, J., Sellar, R. G., Schaffner, J. A., Caplinger, M. A., Shamah, J. M., Johnson, A. E., Ansari, H., Singh, K., Litwin, T., Deen, R., Culver, A., Ruoff, N., Petrizzo, D., Kessler, D., Basset, C., Estlin, T., Alibay, F., Nelessen, A. and Algermissen, S. (2020). The Mars 2020 Engineering Cameras and Microphone on the Perseverance Rover: A Next-Generation Imaging System for Mars Exploration . Space Science Reviews, 137. Source

BibTeX

@article{maki2020mars,
  title = {The Mars 2020 Engineering Cameras and Microphone on the Perseverance Rover: A Next-Generation Imaging System for Mars Exploration},
  author = {Maki, Justin N. and Gruel, D. and McKinney, C. and Ravine, Michael A. and Morales, M. and Lee, D. and Willson, R. and Copley-Woods, D. and Valvo, M. and Goodsall, T. and McGuire, Jill and Sellar, R. G. and Schaffner, Jacob A. and Caplinger, Michael A. and Shamah, Joe M. and Johnson, A. E. and Ansari, H. and Singh, Kaustabh and Litwin, T. and Deen, R. and Culver, A. and Ruoff, N. and Petrizzo, D. and Kessler, D. and Basset, C. and Estlin, T. and Alibay, Farah and Nelessen, Adam and Algermissen, Stirling},
  journal = {Space Science Reviews},
  volume = {216},
  number = {137},
  pages = {137--137},
  year = {2020},
  doi = {10.1007/s11214-020-00765-9},
  abstract = {Abstract The Mars 2020 Perseverance rover is equipped with a next-generation engineering camera imaging system that represents an upgrade over previous Mars rover missions. These upgrades will improve the operational capabilities of the rover with an emphasis on drive planning, robotic arm operation, instrument operations, sample caching activities, and documentation of key events during entry, descent, and landing (EDL). There are a total of 16 cameras in the Perseverance engineering imaging system, including 9 cameras for surface operations and 7 cameras for EDL documentation. There are 3 types of cameras designed for surface operations: Navigation cameras (Navcams, quantity 2), Hazard Avoidance Cameras (Hazcams, quantity 6), and Cachecam (quantity 1). The Navcams will acquire color stereo images of the surface with a $96^{\circ}\times 73^{\circ}$ 96 ∘ × 73 ∘ field of view at 0.33 mrad/pixel. The Hazcams will acquire color stereo images of the surface with a $136^{\circ}\times 102^{\circ}$ 136 ∘ × 102 ∘ at 0.46 mrad/pixel. The Cachecam, a new camera type, will acquire images of Martian material inside the sample tubes during caching operations at a spatial scale of 12.5 microns/pixel. There are 5 types of EDL documentation cameras: The Parachute Uplook Cameras (PUCs, quantity 3), the Descent stage Downlook Camera (DDC, quantity 1), the Rover Uplook Camera (RUC, quantity 1), the Rover Descent Camera (RDC, quantity 1), and the Lander Vision System (LVS) Camera (LCAM, quantity 1). The PUCs are mounted on the parachute support structure and will acquire video of the parachute deployment event as part of a system to characterize parachute performance. The DDC is attached to the descent stage and pointed downward, it will characterize vehicle dynamics by capturing video of the rover as it descends from the skycrane. The rover-mounted RUC, attached to the rover and looking upward, will capture similar video of the skycrane from the vantage point of the rover and will also acquire video of the descent stage flyaway event. The RDC, attached to the rover and looking downward, will document plume dynamics by imaging the Martian surface before, during, and after rover touchdown. The LCAM, mounted to the bottom of the rover chassis and pointed downward, will acquire $90^{\circ}\times 90^{\circ}$ 90 ∘ × 90 ∘ FOV images during the parachute descent phase of EDL as input to an onboard map localization by the Lander Vision System (LVS). The rover also carries a microphone, mounted externally on the rover chassis, to capture acoustic signatures during and after EDL. The Perseverance rover launched from Earth on July 30th, 2020, and touchdown on Mars is scheduled for February 18th, 2021.}
}

Becker, H. N., Alexander, J. W., Dolphin, M. D., Eisenman, A. R., Salomon, P. M., Selva, L. E. and Thorbourn, D. O. (2009). Commercial Sensor Survey Fiscal Year 2009 master compendium radiation test report . JPL Open Repository. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{becker2009commercial,
  title = {Commercial Sensor Survey Fiscal Year 2009 master compendium radiation test report},
  author = {Becker, Heidi N. and Alexander, James W. and Dolphin, Michael D. and Eisenman, Allan R. and Salomon, Phil M. and Selva, Luis E. and Thorbourn, Dennis O.},
  booktitle = {JPL Open Repository},
  year = {2009},
  url = {https://dataverse.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:2014/41470}
}

Becker, H. N., Thorbourn, D. O., Alexander, J. W. and Eisenman, A. R. (2010). Commercial sensor survey Fiscal Year 2010 radiation test report . JPL Open Repository. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{becker2010commercial,
  title = {Commercial sensor survey Fiscal Year 2010 radiation test report},
  author = {Becker, Heidi N. and Thorbourn, Dennis O. and Alexander, James W. and Eisenman, Allan R.},
  booktitle = {JPL Open Repository},
  year = {2010},
  url = {https://dataverse.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:2014/41674}
}

Becker, H. N., Elliott, T. and Alexander, J. W. (2006). Electron-induced displacement damage effects in CCDs . IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. Source

BibTeX

@article{becker2006electron,
  title = {Electron-induced displacement damage effects in CCDs},
  author = {Becker, Heidi N. and Elliott, Tom and Alexander, James W.},
  journal = {IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science},
  volume = {53},
  pages = {3764-3770},
  publisher = {Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)},
  year = {2006},
  doi = {10.1109/tns.2006.886208}
}

Tatsumi, E., Kouyama, T., Suzuki, H., Yamada, M., Sakatani, N., Kameda, S., Yokota, Y., Honda, R., Morota, T., Moroi, K., Tanabe, N., Kamiyoshihara, H., Ishida, M., Yoshioka, K., Sato, H., Honda, C., Hayakawa, M., Kitazato, K., Sawada, H. and Sugita, S. (2019). Updated inflight calibration of Hayabusa2's optical navigation camera (ONC) for scientific observations during the cruise phase . Planetary and Space Science. Source

BibTeX

@article{tatsumi2019updated,
  title = {Updated inflight calibration of Hayabusa2's optical navigation camera (ONC) for scientific observations during the cruise phase},
  author = {Tatsumi, Eri and Kouyama, Toru and Suzuki, Hidehiko and Yamada, Manabu and Sakatani, Naoya and Kameda, Shingo and Yokota, Yasuhiro and Honda, Rie and Morota, Tomokatsu and Moroi, Keiichi and Tanabe, Naoya and Kamiyoshihara, Hiroaki and Ishida, Marika and Yoshioka, Kazuo and Sato, Hiroyuki and Honda, Chikatoshi and Hayakawa, Masahiko and Kitazato, Kohei and Sawada, Hirotaka and Sugita, Seiji},
  journal = {Planetary and Space Science},
  volume = {325},
  pages = {153-195},
  publisher = {Elsevier BV},
  year = {2019},
  doi = {10.1016/j.icarus.2019.01.015}
}

Coates, A. J., Jaumann, R., Griffiths, A. D., Leff, C., Schmitz, N., Josset, J.-L., Paar, G., Gunn, M., Hauber, E., Cousins, C., Cross, R., Grindrod, P. M., Bridges, J. C., Balme, M., Gupta, S., Crawford, I. A., Irwin, P., Stabbins, R., Tirsch, D., Vago, J. L., Theodorou, T., Caballo-Perucha, M., Osinski, G. and the PanCam Team. (2017). The PanCam Instrument for the ExoMars Rover . Astrobiology, 6-7. Source

BibTeX

@article{coates2017pancam,
  title = {The PanCam Instrument for the ExoMars Rover},
  author = {Coates, Andrew J. and Jaumann, Ralf and Griffiths, Andrew D. and Leff, C.E. and Schmitz, Nicole and Josset, Jean-Luc and Paar, Gerhard and Gunn, Matthew and Hauber, Ernst and Cousins, C.R. and Cross, R.E. and Grindrod, Peter M. and Bridges, John C. and Balme, M. and Gupta, Sanjeev and Crawford, Ian A. and Irwin, P. and Stabbins, R. and Tirsch, D. and Vago, Jorge L. and Theodorou, T. and Caballo-Perucha, M. and Osinski, G.R. and {the PanCam Team}},
  journal = {Astrobiology},
  volume = {17},
  number = {6-7},
  pages = {511--541},
  year = {2017},
  doi = {10.1089/ast.2016.1548},
  abstract = {The scientific objectives of the ExoMars rover are designed to answer several key questions in the search for life on Mars. In particular, the unique subsurface drill will address some of these, such as the possible existence and stability of subsurface organics. PanCam will establish the surface geological and morphological context for the mission, working in collaboration with other context instruments. Here, we describe the PanCam scientific objectives in geology, atmospheric science, and 3-D vision. We discuss the design of PanCam, which includes a stereo pair of Wide Angle Cameras (WACs), each of which has an 11-position filter wheel and a High Resolution Camera (HRC) for high-resolution investigations of rock texture at a distance. The cameras and electronics are housed in an optical bench that provides the mechanical interface to the rover mast and a planetary protection barrier. The electronic interface is via the PanCam Interface Unit (PIU), and power conditioning is via a DC-DC converter. PanCam also includes a calibration target mounted on the rover deck for radiometric calibration, fiducial markers for geometric calibration, and a rover inspection mirror. Key Words: Mars—ExoMars—Instrumentation—Geology—Atmosphere—Exobiology—Context. Astrobiology 17, 511–541.}
}

Pyrak, M. and Duden, Q. (2022). Use of a Commercial GEO Servicing Vehicle for Space Domain Awareness Data Collection . Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies (AMOS) Conference. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{pyrak2022use,
  title = {Use of a Commercial GEO Servicing Vehicle for Space Domain Awareness Data Collection},
  author = {Pyrak, Matt and Duden, Quenten},
  booktitle = {Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies (AMOS) Conference},
  year = {2022},
  url = {https://amostech.com/TechnicalPapers/2022/Poster/Pyrak.pdf}
}

Rodríguez-Martínez, D., van der Meer, D., Song, J., Bera, A., Pérez-del-Pulgar, C. J. and Olivares-Mendez, M. A. (2026). SPICE-HL3: Single-Photon, Inertial, and Stereo Camera Dataset for Exploration of High-Latitude Lunar Landscapes . Scientific Data. Source

BibTeX

@article{rodriguezmartinez2026spice,
  title = {{SPICE-HL3}: Single-Photon, Inertial, and Stereo Camera Dataset for Exploration of High-Latitude Lunar Landscapes},
  author = {Rodríguez-Martínez, David and van der Meer, Dave and Song, Junlin and Bera, Abhishek and Pérez-del-Pulgar, Carlos J. and Olivares-Mendez, Miguel Angel},
  journal = {Scientific Data},
  volume = {13},
  pages = {374},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.1038/s41597-026-06668-8},
  abstract = {Abstract Exploring high-latitude lunar regions presents a challenging visual environment for robots. The low sunlight elevation angle and minimal light scattering result in a visual field dominated by a strong contrast featuring long, dynamic shadows. Reproducing these conditions on Earth requires sophisticated simulators and specialized facilities. We introduce a unique dataset recorded at the LunaLab from the SnT - University of Luxembourg, an indoor test facility designed to replicate the optical characteristics of multiple lunar latitudes. Our dataset includes images, inertial measurements, and wheel odometry data from robots navigating different trajectories under multiple illumination scenarios, simulating high-latitude lunar conditions from dawn to nighttime with and without the aid of headlights, resulting in 88 distinct sequences containing a total of 1.3 M images. Data was captured using a stereo RGB-inertial sensor, a monocular monochrome camera, and, for the first time, a novel single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) camera. We recorded both static and dynamic image sequences, with robots navigating at slow (5 cm/s) and fast (50 cm/s) speeds. All data is calibrated, synchronized, and timestamped, providing a valuable resource for validating perception tasks from vision-based autonomous navigation to scientific imaging for future lunar missions targeting high-latitude regions or those intended for robots operating across perceptually degraded environments.}
}

Balaram, J., Scheid, R. E. and T.Salomon, P. (1996). On-Board Perception System For Planetary Aerobot Balloon Navigation . JPL Open Repository. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{balaram1996board,
  title = {On-Board Perception System For Planetary Aerobot Balloon Navigation},
  author = {Balaram, J. and Scheid, Robert E. and T.Salomon, Phil},
  publisher = {JPL Open Repository},
  year = {1996},
  url = {https://dataverse.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:2014/26125}
}

Chien, S., Doubleday, J., Ortega, K., Flatley, T., Crum, G., Geist, A., Lin, M., Williams, A., Bellardo, J., Puig-Suari, J., Stanton, E. and Yee, E. (2012). Onboard processing and autonomous operations on the IPEX Cubesat . IEEE Aerospace Conference. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{chien2012onboarda,
  title = {Onboard processing and autonomous operations on the IPEX Cubesat},
  author = {Chien, Steve and Doubleday, Joshua and Ortega, Kevin and Flatley, Tom and Crum, Gary and Geist, Alessandro and Lin, Michael and Williams, Austin and Bellardo, John and Puig-Suari, Jordi and Stanton, Eric and Yee, Edmond},
  booktitle = {IEEE Aerospace Conference},
  publisher = {JPL Open Repository},
  year = {2012},
  url = {https://dataverse.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:2014/42581}
}

Oborny, N. J., Kehl, F., Cretu, V., Noell, A. C. and Willis, P. A. (2021). A Radiation Tolerant Laser-Induced Fluorescence Detection System for a Potential Europa Lander Mission . Acta Astronautica. Source

BibTeX

@article{oborny2021radiation,
  title = {A Radiation Tolerant Laser-Induced Fluorescence Detection System for a Potential Europa Lander Mission},
  author = {Oborny, Nathan J. and Kehl, Florian and Cretu, Vlad and Noell, Aaron C. and Willis, Peter A.},
  journal = {Acta Astronautica},
  publisher = {JPL Open Repository},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.48577/jpl.zn6zvr},
  abstract = {Analytical techniques commonly implemented for in situ organic analysis on space missions lack thesensitivity or specificity necessary to definitively characterize key markers of current or past life, such asamino acids. To this end, our group has developed an analytical method for amino acid analysis at lowparts-per-billion levels, utilizing capillary electrophoresis coupled to laser-induced fluorescencedetection. Europa has been identified as a particularly appealing target for life detection, but its intenseradiation environment presents additional challenges for instrument development and qualification.Here, we present work toward the development of a flight qualifiable laser-induced fluorescencedetection system that could be implemented on potential future missions to the Jovian system whichcould experience total ionizing dose exposures of up to 300 krad. Our results show that a gallium nitridebased laser diode and micro-photomultiplier based system can meet our system performancerequirements under radiation conditions expected for a potential Europa Lander mission.}
}

Soibel, A., Rafol, S. B., Khoshakhlagh, A., Nguyen, J., Hogland, L., Fisher, A., Keo, S. A., Ting, D. Z.-Y. and Gunapala, S. D. (2016). Radiation tolerance studies of long wavelength infrared InAs/GaSb detectors . Quantum Sensing and Nano Electronics and Photonics XIII. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{soibel2016radiation,
  title = {Radiation tolerance studies of long wavelength infrared InAs/GaSb detectors},
  author = {Soibel, Alexander and Rafol, Sir B. and Khoshakhlagh, Arezou and Nguyen, Jean and Hogland, Linda and Fisher, Anita and Keo, Sam A. and Ting, David Z.-Y. and Gunapala, Sarath D.},
  booktitle = {Quantum Sensing and Nano Electronics and Photonics XIII},
  series = {SPIE Proceedings},
  volume = {9755},
  pages = {975511},
  publisher = {SPIE},
  year = {2016},
  doi = {10.1117/12.2209187},
  abstract = {In this work we investigated the effect of proton irradiation on the performance of long wavelength infrared (LWIR) InAs/GaSb photodiodes (λc = 10.2μm) based on the complementary barrier infrared detector (CBIRD) design. We found that irradiation with 68MeV protons up to the total ionizing dose TID = 200 kRad results in only small (about 15%) decrease of the Quantum Efficiency and does not increase the operational bias of the photodiodes. However, the irradiation causes a significant increase of the dark current from jd = 5x10-5 A/cm2 at Vb = 0.1V and T = 80K to jd = 6x10-3 A/cm2 at TID = 200 kRad. This change in the dark current mechanism can be attributed to the onset of surface leakage current, generated by the trap assisted tunneling processes in the proton displacement damage areas near the device sidewalls.}
}

Hoenk, M. (2023). Stability and photometric accuracy of CMOS image sensors in space: Radiation damage, surface charge and quantum confinement in silicon detectors . JPL Open Repository. Source

BibTeX

@inproceedings{hoenk2023stability,
  title = {Stability and photometric accuracy of CMOS image sensors in space: Radiation damage, surface charge and quantum confinement in silicon detectors},
  author = {Hoenk, Michael},
  booktitle = {JPL Open Repository},
  year = {2023},
  doi = {10.48577/jpl.uncdrz}
}

Imagers and Optics

Detectors and optics selected and flown

Ratings and qualification results

Screening recipes and detector aging

Optics and mounting

Mast pointing, expected and achieved

Engineering and navigation camera detectors

Ratings and qualification results

Commercial CMOS imagers characterized against total dose and displacement damage

Campaign results

Detectors and optics characterized for a high-dose destination

References