FPGAs and Logic
Programmable logic selected by flown and qualified planetary and orbital robotics programs. Two families dominate: Actel and Microsemi flash or antifuse parts where the configuration must survive without scrubbing, and Xilinx SRAM parts where throughput matters and the configuration can be managed.
The mitigation cost is the number worth carrying forward. On SuperCam the flight design consumed about 90 percent of the 75k available gates after every D-type flip-flop was triplicated, and the unmitigated non-destructive failure rate was calculated at about one event for the nominal mission and accepted rather than designed out [1]. A radiation-tolerant part is not a part that needs no mitigation; it is a part where the mitigation fits.
Programmable logic parts selected and flown
Section titled “Programmable logic parts selected and flown”| Part | Manufacturer | Used by | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| RT3PE3000L | Microsemi | perseverance (SuperCam Mast Unit) | [1] |
| RT3PE600L | Microsemi | hayabusa2-landers (MASCOT MasMag) | [2][3] |
| ProASIC3 | Microsemi | mmx-rover (miniRAD) | [4] |
| RTSX | Actel | curiosity (MAHLI), perseverance (Mastcam-Z) | [5][6] |
| Virtex-II | Xilinx | curiosity (MAHLI), perseverance (Mastcam-Z) | [5][6] |
| Virtex-4 | Xilinx | restore-l-osam1, Raven, RRM | [7] |
| Spartan II XC2S200 | Xilinx | spheres | [8][9] |
Ratings and qualification results
Section titled “Ratings and qualification results”- RT3PE3000L, Microsemi, in a CCGA484 package. Reprogrammable non-volatile flash FPGA, radiation tolerant, in the SuperCam Mast Unit data processing unit. Ratings: 75k usable gates; hosts an embedded 8051 soft microprocessor and a 20 MHz +/- 50 ppm clock domain [1]. Qualification: Free of single event latch-up to 68 MeV cm2/mg. Configuration cells are inherently protected, but D-type flip-flops, SDRAM, clocks and I/O banks are not, so all flip-flops were triplicated using the Synplify triple-module-redundancy option. The unmitigated non-destructive failure rate was analyzed at about one event for the nominal mission and accepted. After triplication the design uses about 90 percent of the 75k gates, 37 percent of block RAM and 57 percent of I/O [1].
- RT3PE600L, Microsemi. Reprogrammable non-volatile flash FPGA, radiation tolerant. Ratings: Sole controller for a triaxial fluxgate magnetometer: field computation, feedback current control, mode switching, synchronous detection and integration on a 9.6 kHz excitation [2]. Qualification: Operated through descent and the full 17 h of MASCOT surface operations on Ryugu in October 2018, returning magnetic field data from the start of the descent onward [3].
- ProASIC3, Microsemi. Radiation-tolerant flash FPGA carrying a soft processor. Ratings: 1.5 V core derived by a linear regulator from the instrument 3.3 V rail; controls two internal heaters, three ADCs and the rover interface [4]. Qualification: Flight instrument built and characterized; the optical efficiency of the six infrared channels is published as a curve against wavelength, Fig. 6, not as a single number [4]. No flight result, MMX has not launched.
- RTSX, Actel. Antifuse FPGA used as camera head supervisor. Ratings: One device per camera head. Generates CCD clocks, reads the ADC, performs digital correlated double sampling, and also drives the mechanism motors: focus and dust cover on MAHLI, focus, zoom and filter wheel on Mastcam-Z [5][6]. Qualification: Flown on two rovers from August 2012 and February 2021. Camera head qualified to a nominal Mars operating range of -40 to +40 C, with the board sandwiched between housings acting as radiation shielding and the flex cables enclosed in metal covers [6].
- Virtex-II, Xilinx, called Virtex-2 in the later paper. SRAM FPGA hosting a MicroBlaze soft processor, in the MAHLI and Mastcam-Z Digital Electronics Assemblies. Ratings: Carries all interface, compression and timing functions as logic peripherals of the soft core; runs an 11 to 8 bit companding pipeline with sub-framing and lossless predictive or lossy compression at full camera head input rate [5][6]. Mastcam-Z clocks the camera head link at a selectable 30, 60 or 120 Mb/s aggregate [6]. Qualification: Flown on both rovers. The two programs describe the same part differently, MAHLI as Virtex-II and Mastcam-Z as Virtex-2, and neither paper gives a device speed grade or radiation number [5][6].
- Virtex-4, Xilinx, on the SpaceCube processor slice. SRAM FPGA with embedded hard PowerPC 405 cores, flown on Restore-L/OSAM-1 and its Raven and Robotic Refueling Mission precursors [7]. Ratings: Four devices on a 4 by 4 inch board, two PowerPC 405 cores each, eight cores total. The Relative Navigation Sensor build used three of the four devices and three of the eight cores; the Optical Pose Processing build uses all four devices and at least seven cores, handling nine sensors comprising five cameras, two lidars, a star tracker and an IMU [7]. Qualification: Two flights before this application: Hubble servicing mission SM4 and MISSE7 on the ISS [7].
- Spartan II XC2S200, Xilinx. SRAM FPGA on the Sundance carrier. Ratings: Interfaces the C6701 DSP to the propulsion and navigation subsystems; carrier also holds an ECS-3953C-250 oscillator and a MAX1294 converter [8]. Qualification: Three units launched to the ISS in 2006 and had conducted more than 70 test sessions by 2015 [9].
Where logic replaced a processor
Section titled “Where logic replaced a processor”Three of the rows above are instruments whose only digital controller is an FPGA: MasMag, miniRAD and the MAHLI and Mastcam-Z camera heads [2][4][5]. The alternative architecture appears on ChemCam, whose data processing unit pairs a UTMC 80C196 microcontroller with two Actel devices, one carrying the microcontroller logic and interfaces and one handling the six megabyte data memory bank and the high-speed serial links [10]. The ChemCam design stores program memory in two EEPROM banks, one with its write line tied off in hardware so it cannot be corrupted in flight and one reprogrammable from the ground. An FPGA-only instrument has no equivalent recovery path unless the part is flash based and reloadable.
Programmable logic characterized against radiation, not yet flown on a planetary robot
Section titled “Programmable logic characterized against radiation, not yet flown on a planetary robot”| Part | Manufacturer | Facility and date | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| MPF300T-FCG1152 PolarFire | Microsemi | Lawrence Berkeley 88-Inch Cyclotron, November 2019 | [11] |
| XCKU040-2FFVA1156E Kintex UltraScale | Xilinx | Lawrence Berkeley 88-Inch Cyclotron, November 2019 | [11] |
Ratings and campaign results
Section titled “Ratings and campaign results”- MPF300T-FCG1152 PolarFire, Microsemi. 28 nm flash-configured FPGA, configuration held in SONOS flash [11]. Tested at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 88-Inch Cyclotron with N, O and Ne at 16 MeV. Ratings: Configuration is non-volatile, so no configuration scrubbing is required. Qualification: First-look heavy ion testing on shift registers, counters and embedded LSRAM, die thinned to 100 to 120 um [11]. Upset threshold linear energy transfer below 1.16 MeV-cm2/mg with a cross section of about 3.0e-7 cm2/design. A functional interrupt appeared at every tested linear energy transfer: core current dropped from about 2.75 A to below 100 mA for about 1.7 ms, once for 177 s, always requiring a reset but never losing configuration [11]. The vendor attributes it to a mode setting.
- XCKU040-2FFVA1156E Kintex UltraScale, Xilinx. SRAM-configured FPGA, tested in the same Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 88-Inch Cyclotron campaign [11]. Ratings: Configuration is volatile and must be scrubbed. Qualification: Configuration memory, block RAM and dynamic fluence-to-failure testing. Upset threshold linear energy transfer below 7.0e-2 MeV-cm2/mg with a threshold configuration cross section of about 1.0e-6 cm2/device [11]. Upset cross sections are design dependent, and configuration scrubbing was not performed during the test.
The two rows are the two ends of the class tradeoff measured on the same beam in the same month. The flash-configured part holds its configuration through an upset and its worst observed event is a recoverable current excursion; the SRAM-configured part has an upset threshold two orders of magnitude lower and a configuration that has to be actively maintained.
Space-grade and commercial FPGAs characterized against radiation
Section titled “Space-grade and commercial FPGAs characterized against radiation”Heavy-ion results for parts of the same two families as the flown rows above, none of them yet carried by a planetary robot. Latchup immunity and upset immunity are independent properties here, and every part below has one without the other [12][14].
| Part | Manufacturer | Facility | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| XQR5VFX130 Virtex-5QV | Xilinx | Texas A and M cyclotron | [12] |
| XQR4VSX55 Virtex-4 | Xilinx | Heavy ion at 120 C in vacuum | [13] |
| XQ2V1000 Virtex-II | Xilinx | Texas A and M cyclotron | [14] |
| EP4SGX230KF40 Stratix IV | Altera | Texas A and M cyclotron | [12] |
| iCE65L04 | SiliconBlue | Texas A and M cyclotron | [12] |
Ratings and campaign results
Section titled “Ratings and campaign results”- XQR5VFX130 Virtex-5QV, Xilinx. Radiation-hardened SRAM FPGA with hardened configuration cells. Ratings: the space-qualified member of the SRAM family whose commercial cousins appear on the table above. Qualification: no latchup to 145 MeV-cm2/mg at 125 C, a functional interrupt threshold below 1 MeV-cm2/mg at about 1e-6 cm2 per device, and a block RAM upset threshold below 1.38 MeV-cm2/mg at about 2e-8 cm2 per bit [12]. Hardening the configuration cells did not raise the functional-interrupt threshold, which stays where the commercial parts sit.
- XQR4VSX55 Virtex-4, Xilinx. Radiation-hardened SRAM FPGA, the qualified version of the part flown on the SpaceCube slice above [7]. Ratings: 90 nm CMOS on a flip-chip package with a 2 micrometer epitaxial layer. Qualification: no latchup to 109 MeV-cm2/mg at 120 C in vacuum over a fluence of 1e8 ions/cm2 [13]. Reaching the die needed the silicon thinned from 780 to 100 micrometers, so this result exists only because the package was destroyed to get it.
- XQ2V1000 Virtex-II, Xilinx. Radiation-tolerant SRAM FPGA, bulk CMOS, the same family as the flown MAHLI and Mastcam-Z part. Ratings: 4.1 million configuration bits and 40 block RAMs on the device [14]. Qualification: static configuration-memory upset saturation cross section 5.5e-8 cm2/bit at an L1/e of 8.5 MeV-cm2/mg, block RAM 5e-8 cm2/bit at an L1/e of 5, and a power-on-reset functional interrupt at 6e-6 cm2/device [14]. A power-on-reset event resets the device and erases every configuration bitstream already loaded, so it is a mission-level event and not a correctable upset. Enabling the power-on-reset bypass setting cut those events by 16 percent and SelectMap errors by 27 percent, which is a configuration setting rather than a design change [14].
- EP4SGX230KF40 Stratix IV, Altera. Commercial 40 nm SRAM FPGA [12]. Ratings: not radiation hardened. Qualification: no latchup above 112 MeV-cm2/mg at 85 C [12]. The campaign reports no upset threshold for this part, so latchup immunity is all it establishes.
- iCE65L04, SiliconBlue. Commercial low-power SRAM FPGA. Ratings: not radiation hardened. Qualification: no latchup above 83 MeV-cm2/mg at 25 C, again with no upset threshold reported [12].
An upset cross section published for one design on an SRAM FPGA does not transfer to another design on the same part, because the sensitive area is the configuration the user loaded [12]. The rate predicted from the Virtex-II cross sections, 4.4e-7 upsets per configuration bit-day in interplanetary space behind 100 mils of aluminum at solar minimum, is a rectangular-parallelepiped model output with no proton contribution and no flight measurement behind it [14].
Vision pipelines put into logic
Section titled “Vision pipelines put into logic”Two published stereo and navigation pipelines were moved onto a Xilinx Virtex-4 LX160 to buy frame rate a flight processor cannot reach. The disparity pipeline runs 1024 by 768 RGB stereo pairs at 15 Hz on a 66 MHz FPGA clock, limited by on-chip memory preventing rectification and filtering from being interleaved rather than by the 30 Hz Camera Link input [15]. On the same device the VISINAV descent-image front end is estimated at 25 ms per frame for 500 tracked features against about 650 ms in software for 75 features, a timing estimate taken before integration was complete and not an end-to-end measurement [16]. Neither result carries a beam, a dose or a facility.
References
- Wiens, R. C., Maurice, S., Robinson, S. H., Nelson, A. E., Cais, P., Bernardi, P., Newell, R. T., Clegg, S., Sharma, S. K., Storms, S., Deming, J., Beckman, D., Ollila, A. M., Gasnault, O., Anderson, R. B., André, Y., Angel, S. M., Arana, G., Auden, E., Beck, P., Becker, J., Benzerara, K., Bernard, S., Beyssac, O., Borges, L., Bousquet, B., Boyd, K., Caffrey, M., Carlson, J., Castro, K., Celis, J., Chide, B., Clark, K., Cloutis, E., Cordoba, E. C., Cousin, A., Dale, M., Deflores, L., Delapp, D., Deleuze, M., Dirmyer, M., Donny, C., Dromart, G., Duran, M. G., Egan, M., Ervin, J., Fabre, C., Fau, A., Fischer, W., Forni, O., Fouchet, T., Fresquez, R., Frydenvang, J., Gasway, D., Gontijo, I., Grotzinger, J., Jacob, X., Jacquinod, S., Johnson, J. R., Klisiewicz, R. A., Lake, J., Lanza, N., Laserna, J., Lasue, J., Le Mouélic, S., Legett, I. C., Leveille, R., Lewin, E., Lopez-Reyes, G., Lorenz, R., Lorigny, E., Love, S. P., Lucero, B., Madariaga, J. M., Madsen, M., Madsen, S., Mangold, N., Manrique, J. A., Martinez, J., Martinez-Frias, J., McCabe, K. P., McConnochie, T. H., McGlown, J. M., McLennan, S. M., Melikechi, N., Meslin, P.-Y., Michel, J. M., Mimoun, D., Misra, A., Montagnac, G., Montmessin, F., Mousset, V., Murdoch, N., Newsom, H., Ott, L. A., Ousnamer, Z. R., Pares, L., Parot, Y., Pawluczyk, R., Peterson, C. G., Pilleri, P., Pinet, P., Pont, G., Poulet, F., Provost, C., Quertier, B., Quinn, H., Rapin, W., Reess, J.-M., Regan, A. H., Reyes-Newell, A. L., Romano, P. J., Royer, C., Rull, F., Sandoval, B., Sarrao, J. H., Sautter, V., Schoppers, M. J., Schröder, S., Seitz, D., Shepherd, T., Sobron, P., Dubois, B., Sridhar, V., Toplis, M. J., Torre-Fdez, I., Trettel, I. A., Underwood, M., Valdez, A., Valdez, J., Venhaus, D. and Willis, P. (2021). The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests
. Space Science Reviews, 4. Source
BibTeX
@article{wiens2021supercam, title = {The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests}, author = {Wiens, Roger C. and Maurice, Sylvestre and Robinson, Scott H. and Nelson, Anthony E. and Cais, Philippe and Bernardi, Pernelle and Newell, Raymond T. and Clegg, Sam and Sharma, Shiv K. and Storms, Steven and Deming, Jonathan and Beckman, Darrel and Ollila, Ann M. and Gasnault, Olivier and Anderson, Ryan B. and André, Yves and Angel, S. Michael and Arana, Gorka and Auden, Elizabeth and Beck, Pierre and Becker, Joseph and Benzerara, Karim and Bernard, Sylvain and Beyssac, Olivier and Borges, Louis and Bousquet, Bruno and Boyd, Kerry and Caffrey, Michael and Carlson, Jeffrey and Castro, Kepa and Celis, Jorden and Chide, Baptiste and Clark, Kevin and Cloutis, Edward and Cordoba, Elizabeth C. and Cousin, Agnes and Dale, Magdalena and Deflores, Lauren and Delapp, Dorothea and Deleuze, Muriel and Dirmyer, Matthew and Donny, Christophe and Dromart, Gilles and Duran, M. George and Egan, Miles and Ervin, Joan and Fabre, Cecile and Fau, Amaury and Fischer, Woodward and Forni, Olivier and Fouchet, Thierry and Fresquez, Reuben and Frydenvang, Jens and Gasway, Denine and Gontijo, Ivair and Grotzinger, John and Jacob, Xavier and Jacquinod, Sophie and Johnson, Jeffrey R. and Klisiewicz, Roberta A. and Lake, James and Lanza, Nina and Laserna, Javier and Lasue, Jeremie and Le Mouélic, Stéphane and Legett, IV, Carey and Leveille, Richard and Lewin, Eric and Lopez-Reyes, Guillermo and Lorenz, Ralph and Lorigny, Eric and Love, Steven P. and Lucero, Briana and Madariaga, Juan Manuel and Madsen, Morten and Madsen, Soren and Mangold, Nicolas and Manrique, Jose Antonio and Martinez, J.P. and Martinez-Frias, Jesus and McCabe, Kevin P. and McConnochie, Timothy H. and McGlown, Justin M. and McLennan, Scott M. and Melikechi, Noureddine and Meslin, Pierre-Yves and Michel, John M. and Mimoun, David and Misra, Anupam and Montagnac, Gilles and Montmessin, Franck and Mousset, Valerie and Murdoch, Naomi and Newsom, Horton and Ott, Logan A. and Ousnamer, Zachary R. and Pares, Laurent and Parot, Yann and Pawluczyk, Rafal and Peterson, C. Glen and Pilleri, Paolo and Pinet, Patrick and Pont, Gabriel and Poulet, Francois and Provost, Cheryl and Quertier, Benjamin and Quinn, Heather and Rapin, William and Reess, Jean-Michel and Regan, Amy H. and Reyes-Newell, Adriana L. and Romano, Philip J. and Royer, Clement and Rull, Fernando and Sandoval, Benigno and Sarrao, Joseph H. and Sautter, Violaine and Schoppers, Marcel J. and Schröder, Susanne and Seitz, Daniel and Shepherd, Terra and Sobron, Pablo and Dubois, Bruno and Sridhar, Vishnu and Toplis, Michael J. and Torre-Fdez, Imanol and Trettel, Ian A. and Underwood, Mark and Valdez, Andres and Valdez, Jacob and Venhaus, Dawn and Willis, Peter}, journal = {Space Science Reviews}, volume = {217}, number = {4}, pages = {4--4}, year = {2021}, doi = {10.1007/s11214-020-00777-5}, abstract = {Abstract The SuperCam instrument suite provides the Mars 2020 rover, Perseverance, with a number of versatile remote-sensing techniques that can be used at long distance as well as within the robotic-arm workspace. These include laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), remote time-resolved Raman and luminescence spectroscopies, and visible and infrared (VISIR; separately referred to as VIS and IR) reflectance spectroscopy. A remote micro-imager (RMI) provides high-resolution color context imaging, and a microphone can be used as a stand-alone tool for environmental studies or to determine physical properties of rocks and soils from shock waves of laser-produced plasmas. SuperCam is built in three parts: The mast unit (MU), consisting of the laser, telescope, RMI, IR spectrometer, and associated electronics, is described in a companion paper. The on-board calibration targets are described in another companion paper. Here we describe SuperCam’s body unit (BU) and testing of the integrated instrument. The BU, mounted inside the rover body, receives light from the MU via a 5.8 m optical fiber. The light is split into three wavelength bands by a demultiplexer, and is routed via fiber bundles to three optical spectrometers, two of which (UV and violet; 245–340 and 385–465 nm) are crossed Czerny-Turner reflection spectrometers, nearly identical to their counterparts on ChemCam. The third is a high-efficiency transmission spectrometer containing an optical intensifier capable of gating exposures to 100 ns or longer, with variable delay times relative to the laser pulse. This spectrometer covers 535–853 nm ( $105\text{--}7070~\text{cm}^{-1}$ 105 – 7070 cm − 1 Raman shift relative to the 532 nm green laser beam) with $12~\text{cm}^{-1}$ 12 cm − 1 full-width at half-maximum peak resolution in the Raman fingerprint region. The BU electronics boards interface with the rover and control the instrument, returning data to the rover. Thermal systems maintain a warm temperature during cruise to Mars to avoid contamination on the optics, and cool the detectors during operations on Mars. Results obtained with the integrated instrument demonstrate its capabilities for LIBS, for which a library of 332 standards was developed. Examples of Raman and VISIR spectroscopy are shown, demonstrating clear mineral identification with both techniques. Luminescence spectra demonstrate the utility of having both spectral and temporal dimensions. Finally, RMI and microphone tests on the rover demonstrate the capabilities of these subsystems as well.} } - Herčík, D., Auster, H.-U., Blum, J., Fornaçon, K.-H., Fujimoto, M., Gebauer, K., Güttler, C., Hillenmaier, O., Hördt, A., Liebert, E., Matsuoka, A., Nomura, R., Richter, I., Stoll, B., Weiss, B. P. and Glassmeier, K.-H. (2016). The MASCOT Magnetometer
. Space Science Reviews. Source
BibTeX
@article{hercik2016mascot, title = {The MASCOT Magnetometer}, author = {Herčík, David and Auster, Hans-Ulrich and Blum, Jürgen and Fornaçon, Karl-Heinz and Fujimoto, Masaki and Gebauer, Kathrin and Güttler, Carsten and Hillenmaier, Olaf and Hördt, Andreas and Liebert, Evelyn and Matsuoka, Ayako and Nomura, Reiko and Richter, Ingo and Stoll, Bernd and Weiss, Benjamin P. and Glassmeier, Karl-Heinz}, journal = {Space Science Reviews}, volume = {208}, pages = {433--449}, year = {2016}, doi = {10.1007/978-94-024-1538-4_22}, abstract = {The Mobile Asteroid Scout (MASCOT) is a small lander on board the Hayabusa2 mission of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency to the asteroid 162173 Ryugu. Among the instruments on MASCOT is a fluxgate magnetometer, the MASCOT Magnetometer (MasMag). The magnetometer is a lightweight ( $\sim280~\mbox{g}$ ) and low power ( $\sim0.5~\mbox{W}$ ) triaxial fluxgate magnetometer. Magnetic field measurements during the landing period and during the surface operational phase shall provide information about any intrinsic magnetic field of the asteroid and its remanent magnetization. This could provide important constraints on planet formation and the thermal and aqueous evolution of primitive asteroids.} } - Otto, K., Ho, T.-M., Ulamec, S., Bibring, J.-P., Biele, J., Grott, M., Hamm, M., Hercik, D., Jaumann, R., Sato, M., Schröder, S. E., Tanaka, S., Auster, U., Kitazato, K., Knollenberg, J., Moussi, A., Nakamura, T., Okada, T., Pilorget, C., Schmitz, N., Sugita, S., Wada, K. and Yabuta, H. (2023). MASCOT's in situ analysis of asteroid Ryugu in the context of regolith samples and remote sensing data returned by Hayabusa2
. Earth, Planets and Space. Source
BibTeX
@article{otto2023mascot, title = {MASCOT's in situ analysis of asteroid Ryugu in the context of regolith samples and remote sensing data returned by Hayabusa2}, author = {Otto, Katharina and Ho, Tra-Mi and Ulamec, Stephan and Bibring, Jean-Pierre and Biele, Jens and Grott, Matthias and Hamm, Maximilian and Hercik, David and Jaumann, Ralf and Sato, Masahiko and Schröder, Stefan E. and Tanaka, Satoshi and Auster, Ulrich and Kitazato, Kohei and Knollenberg, Jörg and Moussi, Aurelie and Nakamura, Tomoki and Okada, Tatsuaki and Pilorget, Cedric and Schmitz, Nicole and Sugita, Seiji and Wada, Koji and Yabuta, Hikaru}, journal = {Earth, Planets and Space}, volume = {75}, pages = {51}, year = {2023}, doi = {10.1186/s40623-023-01805-8}, abstract = {Abstract The Hayabusa2 mission provided a unique data set of asteroid Ryugu that covers a wide range of spatial scale from the orbiter remote sensing instruments to the returned samples. The MASCOT lander that was delivered onto the surface of Ryugu aimed to provide context for these data sets by producing in situ data collected by a camera (MasCam), a radiometer (MARA), a magnetometer (MasMag) and a spectrometer (MicrOmega). In this work, we evaluate the success of MASCOT as an integrated lander to bridge the gap between orbiter and returned sample analysis. We find that MASCOT’s measurements and derivatives thereof, including the rock morphology, colour in the visible wavelengths, possible meteorite analogue, density, and porosity of the rock at the landing site are in good agreement with those of the orbiter and the returned samples. However, it also provides information on the spatial scale (sub-millimetres to centimetres) at which some physical properties such as the thermal inertia and reflectance undergo scale-dependent changes. Some of the in situ observations such as the presence of clast/inclusions in rocks and the absence of fine particles at the landing site was uniquely identified by MASCOT. Thus, we conclude that the delivery of an in situ instrument like MASCOT provides a valuable data set that complements and provides context for remote sensing and returned sample analyses. Graphical Abstract} } - Knollenberg, J., Grott, M., Hamm, M., Ihring, A., Ziese, R. and Biele, J. (2025). The miniRAD instrument for the MMX IDEFIX rover
. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science, 53. Source
BibTeX
@article{knollenberg2025minirad, title = {The miniRAD instrument for the MMX IDEFIX rover}, author = {Knollenberg, J. and Grott, Matthias and Hamm, Maximilian and Ihring, A. and Ziese, R. and Biele, Jens}, journal = {Progress in Earth and Planetary Science}, volume = {12}, number = {53}, year = {2025}, doi = {10.1186/s40645-025-00717-3}, abstract = {Abstract The miniRAD radiometer is one of the payloads of the Idefix rover on the MMX mission to Phobos. It is a multispectral instrument which measures the infrared radiative flux in six wavelength channels between 4.7 and 100 µm using single-element thermopile detectors. MiniRAD is equipped with optical filters, one centered at 5.5 µm, three narrow bandpass filters at 8.3 µm, 8.9 µm, and 9.5 µm and two longpass filters with cut-ons at 14–15 µm. One of the longpass filters made from boron nitride (BN) is especially optimized for very low flux, being sensitive in the very long wavelength region even beyond 50 µm. The main measurement objective of the miniRAD instrument is the determination of Phobos’ surface brightness temperature during nighttime, from which the thermal inertia of the surface can be derived. Secondary objectives are to provide constraints on the slope of the emissivity in the thermal infrared, the location of the Christiansen feature, and the surface roughness of Phobos. MiniRAD has been calibrated radiometrically under relevant environmental conditions using a cavity blackbody over the full expected range of object temperatures from 100 to 330 K. The predicted uncertainty of the brightness temperature is < 1 K at dayside temperatures > 270 K for all channels, while the BN filter uncertainty is < 5 K at the lowest calibration temperature of 100 K.} } - Edgett, K. S., Yingst, R. A., Ravine, M. A., Caplinger, M. A., Maki, J. N., Ghaemi, F. T., Schaffner, J. A., Bell, I. J. F., Edwards, L. J., Herkenhoff, K. E., Heydari, E., Kah, L. C., Lemmon, M. T., Minitti, M. E., Olson, T. S., Parker, T. J., Rowland, S. K., Schieber, J., Sullivan, R. J., Sumner, D. Y., Thomas, P. C., Jensen, E. H., Simmonds, J. J., Sengstacken, A. J., Willson, R. G. and Goetz, W. (2012). Curiosity's Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) Investigation
. Space Science Reviews. Source
BibTeX
@article{edgett2012curiosity, title = {Curiosity's Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) Investigation}, author = {Edgett, Kenneth S. and Yingst, R. Aileen and Ravine, Michael A. and Caplinger, Michael A. and Maki, Justin N. and Ghaemi, F. Tony and Schaffner, Jacob A. and Bell, III, James F. and Edwards, Laurence J. and Herkenhoff, Kenneth E. and Heydari, Ezat and Kah, Linda C. and Lemmon, Mark T. and Minitti, Michelle E. and Olson, Timothy S. and Parker, Timothy J. and Rowland, Scott K. and Schieber, Juergen and Sullivan, Robert J. and Sumner, Dawn Y. and Thomas, Peter C. and Jensen, Elsa H. and Simmonds, John J. and Sengstacken, Aaron J. and Willson, Reg G. and Goetz, Walter}, journal = {Space Science Reviews}, volume = {170}, pages = {259--317}, year = {2012}, doi = {10.1007/s11214-012-9910-4}, abstract = {The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) investigation will use a 2-megapixel color camera with a focusable macro lens aboard the rover, Curiosity, to investigate the stratigraphy and grain-scale texture, structure, mineralogy, and morphology of geologic materials in northwestern Gale crater. Of particular interest is the stratigraphic record of a ∼5 km thick layered rock sequence exposed on the slopes of Aeolis Mons (also known as Mount Sharp). The instrument consists of three parts, a camera head mounted on the turret at the end of a robotic arm, an electronics and data storage assembly located inside the rover body, and a calibration target mounted on the robotic arm shoulder azimuth actuator housing. MAHLI can acquire in-focus images at working distances from ∼2.1 cm to infinity. At the minimum working distance, image pixel scale is ∼14 μm per pixel and very coarse silt grains can be resolved. At the working distance of the Mars Exploration Rover Microscopic Imager cameras aboard Spirit and Opportunity, MAHLI’s resolution is comparable at ∼30 μm per pixel. Onboard capabilities include autofocus, auto-exposure, sub-framing, video imaging, Bayer pattern color interpolation, lossy and lossless compression, focus merging of up to 8 focus stack images, white light and longwave ultraviolet (365 nm) illumination of nearby subjects, and 8 gigabytes of non-volatile memory data storage.} } - Bell, I. J., Maki, J. N., Mehall, G. L., Ravine, M. A., Caplinger, M. A., Bailey, Z., Brylow, S., Schaffner, J. A., Kinch, K. M., Madsen, M., Winhold, A. G., Hayes, A. G., Corlies, P., Tate, C., Barrington, M., Cisneros, E., Jensen, E., Paris, K., Crawford, K., Rojas, C., Mehall, L., Joseph, J., Proton, J., Cluff, N., Deen, R. G., Betts, B., Cloutis, E., Coates, A. J., Colaprete, A., Edgett, K. S., Ehlmann, B. L., Fagents, S. A., Grotzinger, J. P., Hardgrove, C., Herkenhoff, K., Horgan, B., Jaumann, R., Johnson, J. R., Lemmon, M., Paar, G., Caballo-Perucha, M., Gupta, S., Traxler, C., Preusker, F., Rice, M. S., Robinson, M. S., Schmitz, N., Sullivan, R. and Wolff, M. (2021). The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover Mast Camera Zoom (Mastcam-Z) Multispectral, Stereoscopic Imaging Investigation
. Space Science Reviews, 24. Source
BibTeX
@article{bell2021mars, title = {The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover Mast Camera Zoom (Mastcam-Z) Multispectral, Stereoscopic Imaging Investigation}, author = {Bell, III, J.F. and Maki, Justin N. and Mehall, Greg L. and Ravine, Michael A. and Caplinger, Michael A. and Bailey, Z.J. and Brylow, S. and Schaffner, Jacob A. and Kinch, Kjartan M. and Madsen, M.B. and Winhold, Andrew G. and Hayes, Alexander G. and Corlies, Paul and Tate, C. and Barrington, Megan and Cisneros, Ernest and Jensen, E. and Paris, Kristen and Crawford, Kelsie and Rojas, Corrine and Mehall, Laura and Joseph, Jonathan and Proton, J.B. and Cluff, Nathan and Deen, Robert G. and Betts, B. and Cloutis, E. and Coates, Andrew J. and Colaprete, Anthony and Edgett, Kenneth S. and Ehlmann, Bethany L. and Fagents, Sarah A. and Grotzinger, John P. and Hardgrove, Craig and Herkenhoff, K.E. and Horgan, B. and Jaumann, Ralf and Johnson, Jeffrey R. and Lemmon, M. and Paar, Gerhard and Caballo-Perucha, M. and Gupta, Sanjeev and Traxler, Christoph and Preusker, Frank and Rice, Melissa S. and Robinson, Mark S. and Schmitz, Nicole and Sullivan, R. and Wolff, M.J.}, journal = {Space Science Reviews}, volume = {217}, number = {24}, pages = {24--24}, year = {2021}, doi = {10.1007/s11214-020-00755-x}, abstract = {Abstract Mastcam-Z is a multispectral, stereoscopic imaging investigation on the Mars 2020 mission’s Perseverance rover. Mastcam-Z consists of a pair of focusable, 4:1 zoomable cameras that provide broadband red/green/blue and narrowband 400-1000 nm color imaging with fields of view from 25.6° × 19.2° (26 mm focal length at 283 μrad/pixel) to 6.2° × 4.6° (110 mm focal length at 67.4 μrad/pixel). The cameras can resolve (≥ 5 pixels) ∼0.7 mm features at 2 m and ∼3.3 cm features at 100 m distance. Mastcam-Z shares significant heritage with the Mastcam instruments on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover. Each Mastcam-Z camera consists of zoom, focus, and filter wheel mechanisms and a 1648 × 1214 pixel charge-coupled device detector and electronics. The two Mastcam-Z cameras are mounted with a 24.4 cm stereo baseline and 2.3° total toe-in on a camera plate ∼2 m above the surface on the rover’s Remote Sensing Mast, which provides azimuth and elevation actuation. A separate digital electronics assembly inside the rover provides power, data processing and storage, and the interface to the rover computer. Primary and secondary Mastcam-Z calibration targets mounted on the rover top deck enable tactical reflectance calibration. Mastcam-Z multispectral, stereo, and panoramic images will be used to provide detailed morphology, topography, and geologic context along the rover’s traverse; constrain mineralogic, photometric, and physical properties of surface materials; monitor and characterize atmospheric and astronomical phenomena; and document the rover’s sample extraction and caching locations. Mastcam-Z images will also provide key engineering information to support sample selection and other rover driving and tool/instrument operations decisions.} } - Naasz, B. J., Strube, M., Van Eepoel, J., Barbee, B. W. and Getzandanner, K. M. (2011). Satellite Servicing's Autonomous Rendezvous and Docking Testbed on the International Space Station
. Annual AAS Rocky Mountain Section Guidance and Control Conference, 20180000044. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{naasz2011satellite, title = {Satellite Servicing's Autonomous Rendezvous and Docking Testbed on the International Space Station}, author = {Naasz, Bo J. and Strube, Matthew and Van Eepoel, John and Barbee, Brent W. and Getzandanner, Kenneth M.}, booktitle = {Annual AAS Rocky Mountain Section Guidance and Control Conference}, number = {20180000044}, institution = {NASA}, address = {Breckenridge, CO}, year = {2011}, url = {https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20180000044}, abstract = {The Space Servicing Capabilities Project (SSCP) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) has been tasked with developing systems for servicing space assets. Starting in 2009, the SSCP completed a study documenting potential customers and the business case for servicing, as well as defining several notional missions and required technologies. In 2010, SSCP moved to the implementation stage by completing several ground demonstrations and commencing development of two International Space Station (ISS) payloads-the Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM) and the Dextre Pointing Package (DPP)--to mitigate new technology risks for a robotic mission to service existing assets in geosynchronous orbit. This paper introduces the DPP, scheduled to fly in July of 2012 on the third operational SpaceX Dragon mission, and its Autonomous Rendezvous and Docking (AR&D) instruments. The combination of sensors and advanced avionics provide valuable on-orbit demonstrations of essential technologies for servicing existing vehicles, both cooperative and non-cooperative.} } - Nolet, S. (2007). Development of a Guidance, Navigation and Control Architecture and Validation Process Enabling Autonomous Docking to a Tumbling Satellite. Source
BibTeX
@phdthesis{nolet2007development, title = {Development of a Guidance, Navigation and Control Architecture and Validation Process Enabling Autonomous Docking to a Tumbling Satellite}, author = {Nolet, Simon}, school = {Massachusetts Institute of Technology}, type = {Ph.D. thesis}, year = {2007}, url = {https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/38598} } - Miller, D. L. (2015). Development of Resource-Constrained Sensors and Actuators for In-Space Satellite Docking and Servicing. Source
BibTeX
@mastersthesis{miller2015development, title = {Development of Resource-Constrained Sensors and Actuators for In-Space Satellite Docking and Servicing}, author = {Miller, Duncan L.}, school = {Massachusetts Institute of Technology}, type = {S.M. thesis}, year = {2015}, url = {https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/98805} } - Wiens, R. C., Maurice, S., Barraclough, B., Saccoccio, M., Barkley, W. C., Bell, I. J. F., Bender, S., Bernardin, J., Blaney, D., Blank, J., Bouyé, M., Bridges, N., Bultman, N., Caïs, P., Clanton, R. C., Clark, B., Clegg, S., Cousin, A., Cremers, D., Cros, A., DeFlores, L., Delapp, D., Dingler, R., D'Uston, C., Dyar, M. D., Elliott, T., Enemark, D., Fabre, C., Flores, M., Forni, O., Gasnault, O., Hale, T., Hays, C., Herkenhoff, K., Kan, E., Kirkland, L., Kouach, D., Landis, D., Langevin, Y., Lanza, N., LaRocca, F., Lasue, J., Latino, J., Limonadi, D., Lindensmith, C., Little, C., Mangold, N., Manhes, G., Mauchien, P., McKay, C., Miller, E., Mooney, J., Morris, R. V., Morrison, L., Nelson, T., Newsom, H., Ollila, A., Ott, M., Pares, L., Perez, R., Poitrasson, F., Provost, C., Reiter, J. W., Roberts, T., Romero, F., Sautter, V., Salazar, S., Simmonds, J. J., Stiglich, R., Storms, S., Striebig, N., Thocaven, J.-J., Trujillo, T., Ulibarri, M., Vaniman, D., Warner, N., Waterbury, R., Whitaker, R., Witt, J. and Wong-Swanson, B. (2012). The ChemCam Instrument Suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests
. Space Science Reviews. Source
BibTeX
@article{wiens2012chemcam, title = {The ChemCam Instrument Suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests}, author = {Wiens, Roger C. and Maurice, Sylvestre and Barraclough, Bruce and Saccoccio, Muriel and Barkley, Walter C. and Bell, III, James F. and Bender, Steve and Bernardin, John and Blaney, Diana and Blank, Jennifer and Bouyé, Marc and Bridges, Nathan and Bultman, Nathan and Caïs, Phillippe and Clanton, Robert C. and Clark, Benton and Clegg, Samuel and Cousin, Agnes and Cremers, David and Cros, Alain and DeFlores, Lauren and Delapp, Dorothea and Dingler, Robert and D'Uston, Claude and Dyar, M. Darby and Elliott, Tom and Enemark, Don and Fabre, Cecile and Flores, Mike and Forni, Olivier and Gasnault, Olivier and Hale, Thomas and Hays, Charles and Herkenhoff, Ken and Kan, Ed and Kirkland, Laurel and Kouach, Driss and Landis, David and Langevin, Yves and Lanza, Nina and LaRocca, Frank and Lasue, Jeremie and Latino, Joseph and Limonadi, Daniel and Lindensmith, Chris and Little, Cynthia and Mangold, Nicolas and Manhes, Gerard and Mauchien, Patrick and McKay, Christopher and Miller, Ed and Mooney, Joe and Morris, Richard V. and Morrison, Leland and Nelson, Tony and Newsom, Horton and Ollila, Ann and Ott, Melanie and Pares, Laurent and Perez, René and Poitrasson, Franck and Provost, Cheryl and Reiter, Joseph W. and Roberts, Tom and Romero, Frank and Sautter, Violaine and Salazar, Steven and Simmonds, John J. and Stiglich, Ralph and Storms, Steven and Striebig, Nicolas and Thocaven, Jean-Jacques and Trujillo, Tanner and Ulibarri, Mike and Vaniman, David and Warner, Noah and Waterbury, Rob and Whitaker, Robert and Witt, James and Wong-Swanson, Belinda}, journal = {Space Science Reviews}, volume = {170}, pages = {167--227}, year = {2012}, doi = {10.1007/s11214-012-9902-4}, abstract = {The ChemCam instrument suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity provides remote compositional information using the first laser-induced breakdown spectrometer (LIBS) on a planetary mission, and provides sample texture and morphology data using a remote micro-imager (RMI). Overall, ChemCam supports MSL with five capabilities: remote classification of rock and soil characteristics; quantitative elemental compositions including light elements like hydrogen and some elements to which LIBS is uniquely sensitive (e.g., Li, Be, Rb, Sr, Ba); remote removal of surface dust and depth profiling through surface coatings; context imaging; and passive spectroscopy over the 240–905 nm range. ChemCam is built in two sections: The mast unit, consisting of a laser, telescope, RMI, and associated electronics, resides on the rover’s mast, and is described in a companion paper. ChemCam’s body unit, which is mounted in the body of the rover, comprises an optical demultiplexer, three spectrometers, detectors, their coolers, and associated electronics and data handling logic. Additional instrument components include a 6 m optical fiber which transfers the LIBS light from the telescope to the body unit, and a set of onboard calibration targets. ChemCam was integrated and tested at Los Alamos National Laboratory where it also underwent LIBS calibration with 69 geological standards prior to integration with the rover. Post-integration testing used coordinated mast and instrument commands, including LIBS line scans on rock targets during system-level thermal-vacuum tests. In this paper we describe the body unit, optical fiber, and calibration targets, and the assembly, testing, and verification of the instrument prior to launch.} } - Topper, A. D., Lauenstein, J.-M., Wilcox, E. P., Berg, M. D., Campola, M. J., Casey, M. C., Wyrwas, E. J., O'Bryan, M. V., Carstens, T. A., Fedele, C. M., Forney, J. D., Kim, H. S., Osheroff, J. M., Phan, A. M., Chaiken, M. F., Cochran, D. J., Pellish, J. A. and Majewicz, P. J. (2020). NASA Goddard Space Flight Center's Compendium of Radiation Effects Test Results
. IEEE Radiation Effects Data Workshop. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{topper2020nasa, title = {NASA Goddard Space Flight Center's Compendium of Radiation Effects Test Results}, author = {Topper, Alyson D. and Lauenstein, Jean-Marie and Wilcox, Edward P. and Berg, Melanie D. and Campola, Michael J. and Casey, Megan C. and Wyrwas, Edward J. and O'Bryan, Martha V. and Carstens, Thomas A. and Fedele, Caroline M. and Forney, James D. and Kim, Hak S. and Osheroff, Jason M. and Phan, Anthony M. and Chaiken, Max F. and Cochran, Donna J. and Pellish, Jonathan A. and Majewicz, Peter J.}, booktitle = {IEEE Radiation Effects Data Workshop}, pages = {1--12}, year = {2020}, doi = {10.1109/redw51883.2020.9325841}, abstract = {Total ionizing dose, displacement damage dose, and single event effects testing were performed to characterize and determine the suitability of candidate electronics for NASA space utilization. Devices tested include FETs, flash memory, FPGAs, optoelectronics, digital, analog, and bipolar devices.} } - Allen, G. R., Guertin, S. M., Scheick, L. Z., Irom, F. and Zajac, S. (2012). Compendium of recent test results of single event effects conducted by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
. IEEE Radiation Effects Data Workshop. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{allen2012compendium, title = {Compendium of recent test results of single event effects conducted by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory}, author = {Allen, Gregory R. and Guertin, Steven M. and Scheick, Leif Z. and Irom, Farokh and Zajac, Stephanie}, booktitle = {IEEE Radiation Effects Data Workshop}, pages = {1-10}, publisher = {IEEE}, year = {2012}, doi = {10.1109/redw.2012.6353747}, abstract = {This paper reports heavy ion, proton, and laser induced single event effects results for a variety of microelectronic devices targeted for possible use in NASA spacecrafts. The compendium covers devices tested within the years of 2010 through 2012.} } - Allen, G. R., Swift, G. M., Carmichael, C. and Tseng, C. (2007). Initial single event effects testing of the Xilinx Virtex-4 field programmable gate array
. JPL Open Repository. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{allen2007initial, title = {Initial single event effects testing of the Xilinx Virtex-4 field programmable gate array}, author = {Allen, Gregory R. and Swift, Gary M. and Carmichael, Carl and Tseng, C.}, publisher = {JPL Open Repository}, year = {2007}, url = {https://dataverse.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:2014/40350} } - Yui, C., Swift, G. and Carmichael, C. (2002). Single event upset susceptibility testing of the Xilinx Virtex II FPGA
. AIAA. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{yui2002single, title = {Single event upset susceptibility testing of the Xilinx Virtex II FPGA}, author = {Yui, Candice and Swift, Gary and Carmichael, Carl}, booktitle = {AIAA}, publisher = {JPL Open Repository}, year = {2002}, url = {https://dataverse.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:2014/37203} } - Villalpando, C. Y., Morfopoulos, A., Matthies, L. and Goldberg, S. (2011). FPGA Implementation of Stereo Disparity with High Throughput for Mobility Applications
. IEEE Aerospace Conference. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{villalpando2011fpga, title = {FPGA Implementation of Stereo Disparity with High Throughput for Mobility Applications}, author = {Villalpando, Carlos Y. and Morfopoulos, Arin and Matthies, Larry and Goldberg, Steven}, booktitle = {IEEE Aerospace Conference}, pages = {1--11}, address = {Big Sky, Montana}, year = {2011}, doi = {10.1109/aero.2011.5747269}, abstract = {High speed stereo vision can allow unmanned robotic systems to navigate safely in unstructured terrain, but the computational cost can exceed the capacity of typical embedded CPUs. In this paper, we describe an end-to-end stereo computation co-processing system optimized for fast throughput that has been implemented on a single Virtex 4 LX160 FPGA. This system is capable of operating on images from a 1024 × 768 3CCD (true RGB) camera pair at 15 Hz. Data enters the FPGA directly from the cameras via Camera Link and is rectified, pre-filtered and converted into a disparity image all within the FPGA, incurring no CPU load. Once complete, a rectified image and the final disparity image are read out over the PCI bus, for a bandwidth cost of 68 MB/sec. Within the FPGA there are 4 distinct algorithms: Camera Link capture, Bilinear rectification, Bilateral subtraction pre-filtering and the Sum of Absolute Difference (SAD) disparity. Each module will be described in brief along with the data flow and control logic for the system. The system has been successfully fielded upon the Carnegie Mellon University's National Robotics Engineering Center (NREC) Crusher system during extensive field trials in 2007 and 2008 and is being implemented for other surface mobility systems at JPL.} } - Morfopolous, A., Metz, B., Villalpando, C., Matthies, L. and Serrano, N. (2011). Implementation of pin point landing vision components in an FPGA system.
. Aerospace Conference. Source
BibTeX
@inproceedings{morfopolous2011implementation, title = {Implementation of pin point landing vision components in an FPGA system.}, author = {Morfopolous, Arin and Metz, Brandon and Villalpando, Carlos and Matthies, Larry and Serrano, Navid}, booktitle = {Aerospace Conference}, volume = {5}, pages = {1-9}, publisher = {IEEE}, year = {2011}, doi = {10.1109/aero.2011.5747245}, abstract = {Pin-point landing is required to enable missions to land close, typically within 10 meters, to scientifically important targets in generally hazardous terrain. In Pin Point Landing both high accuracy and high speed estimation of position and orientation is needed to provide input to the control system to safely choose and navigate to a safe landing site. A proposed algorithm called VISion aided Inertial NAVigation (VISINAV) has shown that the accuracy requirements can be met. [2][3] VISINAV was shown in software only, and was expected to use FPGA enhancements in the future to improve the computational speed needed for pin point landing during Entry Descent and Landing (EDL). Homography, feature detection and spatial correlation are computationally intensive parts of VISINAV. Homography aligns the map image with the descent image so that small correlation windows can be used, and feature detection provides regions that spatial correlation can track from frame to frame in order to estimate vehicle motion. On MER the image Homography, Feature Detection and Correlation would take approximately 650ms tracking 75 features between frames. We implemented Homography, Feature detection and Correlation on a Virtex 4 LX160 FPGA to run in under 25ms while tracking 500 features to improve algorithm reliability and throughput.} }